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A FIRST COURSE OF
ENGLISH PHONETICS

LONDON AGENTS
SIMPKIN. MARSHALL & Co. Ltd.

A FIRST COURSE

ENGLISH PHONETICS

INCLUDING AN EXPLANATION OF THE SCOPE OF THE
SCIENCE OF PHONETICS. THE THEORY OF SOUNDS.
A CATALOGUE OF ENGLISH SOUNDS AND A
NUMBER OF ARTICULATION, PRONUN-
CIATION AND TRANSCRIPTION
EXERCISES

HAROLD E. PALMER

Assistant to the Phonetics Department.
University College. London

CAMBRIDGE
W. HEFFER S? SONS LTD.

1917

Printed by W. Heffer & Sons LM .

at their Printing Works,

104 Hills Road, Cambridge.

CONTENTS

PAGE

Introduction .. .. .. .. . .. . . vii

PART I.

What is Phonf.ttcs ? . . . . . . . . . , . . i

The Study of Sounds, thkir Formation and Classifi-
cation (with particular reference to English sounds) . . 7

Questions on the Phonetic Theory . . . . • • 27

PART II.
Systematic Articulation Exercises . . . . • • 33

PART III.

Systematic Exercises on English Words :

Series A. The Catalogue of English Sounds (Phonetic

Text) 39

Series B. Six Useful Sets of Words containing Weak

Syllables (Phonetic Text) 56

Series C. Pairs of Words likely to be confused by

Foreign Students (Phonetic Text) . . . . . . 58

Series A. (Orthographic Text) . . . . . . . . 63

Series B. (Orthographic Text) . . . . . . • . 79

Series C. (Orthographic Text) . . . . . . . . 81

Series D. Transcription Exercises . . . . . . 86

INTRODUCTION

This First Course of English Phonetics is inteaded
primarily for foreign students of English ; it can be
used either as a text-book in the hands of a teacher or
as a method of self-tuition. It may be used with those
who have no knowledge whatever of English or as a cor-
rective course for those whose previously acquired
knowledge has been marred by unphonetic methods.

It may further be used by English students who wish
to possess in a concise form the elementary facts of the
phonetics of their own language in order to serve either
as a preparation for the more serious study of the sub-
ject or as a stepping-stone to the study of the phonetic
systems of foreign languages.

The more precise objects for which this book has been
written are :

1. To serve as an answer to the question " What is
Phonetics ? "

2. To describe as concisely as is consistent with clear-
ness the classification of sounds, more especially English
sounds.

3. To provide a handy " catalogue " of the English
sounds, each of which is accompanied by 20 character-
istic examples chosen from among the most used mono-
sj^llabic words.

4. To demonstrate by means of a transcript of these
words in the ordinary spelling the extremely complicated
nature of English orthography, and by so doing, to show
the impossibility of studjang English pronunciation on
an orthoepic basis.

5. To provide the student with a number of recapitu-
latory exercises in order to ensure the proper inculcition
of the phonetic theory.

vii

viii INTRODUCTION

6. To provide the student with a graduated series of
articulation exercises each one of which has been calcu-
lated to further his mastery of his vocal organs.

The method adopted in this course is based not only
on the iniitation by the pupil of the sounds articulated
by the teacher, but also to a large extent on a prelimi-
nary study of the phonetic theory itself.

The reason for this is twofold.

In the first place, this procedure is calculated to in-
troduce from the first lesson the all-important factor of
interest. To many the most interesting side of phonetics
is that part which defines the scope of the subject and
explains of what it consists and its direct utility in
language studv. Once this latent interest is aroused,
the student is eager to embark on the aspect almost
equally interesting , the phonetic theory itself. He
wishes to grasp the principles of pronunciation, and
Until he has done so, the articulation and pronunciation
exercises will be somewhat in the nature of an uninter-
esting grind.

The second reason for which such prominence is given
in the earliest stage to the phonetic theory, and for
which we would urge the study of the classification of
sounds by beginners, is the following one :

One of the greatest difficulties for those who take up
the study of phonetics is clearly to recognize that sounds
have identities of their own as quite distinct from the
letters of the conventional alphabet. For them the
various sounds are abstractions, bewilderingly strange
and elusive.

The student conceives that the only way to recognize
them is mentally to connect each with one of the
familiar orthographic units ranging from A to Z. Nor
is this astonishing. It is well known to students of
psychology that we convert the unknown into the
known by associating it mentally with something
already known. The beginner, to whom each sound
qua sound is an unfamiliar fact, most naturally strives
to connect each one with something already known.
This something proves almost invariably to be the

INTRODUCTION ix

letters of his alphabet. The result must necessarily
be a confusion of phonetics with orthoepy, and a con-
sequent state of perplexity which in many cases utterly
discourages the student from further efforts.

Now if, during the first stage, we talk to the student
about his' hps, his teeth, the blade of his tongue, about
air currents, explosions and vibrations, if we encourage
him to produce noises in different parts of his mouth,
and produce noises for him to diagnose, if we show him
how to sort and classify these^ noises, and give him labels
to stick on each group, if we do all these things, we shall
divert his mind from all alphabetic considerations and
lead him once for all to the true starting-point.

By studying the classification of sounds, by listening,
reading, talking and thinking about them, each one
becomes clothed in its attributes, and consequently ac-
quires a personality, an identity, an individuality,
quite independent of all orthographic considerations, j
This individuahty once estabhshed, the science of
phonetics with its attendant exercises and adjuncts
appears in its true fight, a source of perpetual and cumu-
lative interest, a defightful means to a much desired end.

Simple and lucid as the whole subject appears to the
expert phonetician, it contains in reafity a number of
entirely distinct factors. One of these is the theory of
the classification of sounds ; another is the theory of
notation, embracing the two distinct conceptions re-
spectively of " broad " and " narrow " transcription.
Another factor is the theory of identification and dis-
tribution of sounds, involving considerations of sound-
attributes and divergences of pronunciation. Other
factors are the auditive recognition of sounds, and
the command over the organs of speech.

To these we must add a subjective factor : the be-
ginner must unlearn and forget nearly all his notions of
pronunciation previously acquired by unphonetic
methods.

The sum of these factors constitutes for the beginner
an array of' seeming contradictions and a hopeless
tangle of abstractions divorced from 9.II that he has ever

X INTRODUCTION

conceived as concrete. It is sometimes difficult for the
teacher of phonetics to put himself in the place of those
to whom the subject is utterly unknown, and to realize
the mentality of those to whom the letter is the central
fact of all questions of pronunciation.

In two directions it is possible to err : either by con-
fusing the pupil with information at the wrong moment,
or by puzzling him by withholding information at the
right moment. In the opinion of the author, the treat-
ment adopted in these pages is best calculated to appeal
to the absolute beginner and to cause him in the shortest
possible time to " think phonetically."

In some cases it has been considered that this end is
better served by somewhat crude statements in cate-
goric form than by information of a more precise nature
conveyed in a more guarded form.

No explicit directions are furnished in this book as to
how each unknown English sound is to be acquired by
the foreign student. Such directions must necessarily
vary according to the native language of the student,
and can only be given by a phonetically-trained teacher
after having ascertained the particular tendencies of
his pupil's articulation.

The pronunciation indicated throughout this book is
that used by a large number of educated Southern
English people. Advanced students will realize that
the value of English sounds (especially vowels) is ver}^
unstable, and may vary considerably from one person
to another.

Teachers using this book should adapt to their own
pronunciation the various indications given in these
pages, and must use their judgment as to within what
limits divergences are permissible.

PART I.

WHAT IS PHONETICS? .

DEFINITION.

Phonetics is the science which treats of the sounds of
which language is composed. It explains to us by
means of appropriate terms and diagrams how these
sounds are formed and to what positions of the organs
of speech they correspond.

It shows us that all sounds may be divided (from the
point of view of the learner) into two classes : known
sounds (i.e. those we have already acquired either in our
own language or in some foreign language) and unknown
sounds (i.e. certain foreign sounds of which we are so far
in ignorance).

By explaining how we form the known sounds, it
enables us to proceed from these to the unknown sounds
and to master them by intelligent and properly directed
efforts.

While depending to a large extent on our faculties of
imitation, it utilizes our faculties of understanding and
comparison ; by simple and concrete explanations it
shows us what to do and what to avoid in order to pro-
duce the required sound.

PHONETICS CONCERNS SOUNDS ONLY.

All true information concerning sounds, their produc-
tion and classification comes into the province of pho-
netics. This information may be clothed in the im-
precise and perplexing terminology of the so-called
pre-phonetic period or in the positive and simple termin-
ology of the present day ; in both cases we are working
at phonetics.

Information concerned not with the production and
classification of sounds but concerning the manner of

2 ENGLISH PHONETICS

interpreting the letters of our conventional spelling is
not phonetics but orthoepy.

MISCONCEPTIONS CONCERNING PHONETICS.

Some people misunderstand the nature of phonetics,
they think that it consists essentially of replacing the
classical alphabet and orthography by an artificial and
difficult system of cabalistic signs. This is a misap-
prehension both of the nature of phonetics and of what
is called the phonetic alphabet.

Just as there are people who say that the English
system of money, weights and measures is absurdly
easy, and that the continental decimal systqm is mysteri-
ously difficult, there are also people who imagine that the
old-fashioned "rules of pronunciation " (compiled by well-
meaning but somewhat ignorant pseudo-phoneticians)
are the embodiment of clearness and facility, and that
the new-fangled phonetic alphabet is bewilderingly
complicated. Both of these curious perversions of
logic and commonsense are due to regrettable mis-
understandings.

We would say to such people :

(i). Do not confuse phonetics proper with Phonetic
Notation (i.e. the phonetic alphabet).

(2). Do not think that an alphabet is difficult because
it contains strange-looking letters.

Just as it is possible to learn to sing and to play a
musical instrument without the aid of the musical
notation, it is also possible (although highly inexpedient)
to learn about speech sounds without the aid of special
symbols, but in both cases we should be doing a foolish
thing in wilfully depriving ourselves of such simple and
useful devices. The intelligent pupil, hke the intelh-
gent workman, seeks the simplest and most effective
instruments which will enable him to perform with the
greatest ease the work required of him.

THE CATALOGUE OF SOUNDS.

It has been found by experience that the simplest
way to learn about the sound-system of any particular
language is to consult a catalogue of the individual

WHAT IS PHONETICS ? 3

sounds contained in it. In this catalogue each ap-
pears in its proper place, is described, explained and
distinguished from its neighbours.

As long as the English student thinks that the French
u (in vu) is a sort of Enghsh u (in cube), he will be unable
to produce the former. As long as a French student
thinks that the English r (in red) is a sort of French r
(in rouge) he will be unable to produce the former.

In this catalogue some sort of notation must be devised
in order to identify each sound, so that misunderstand-
ings such as those mentioned above may not occur.
Without the notation which fixes the sounds in our
memory we shall certainly confuse the different items
of which this catalogue is composed. We might use
numbers for this purpose, and speak of Sound No. i,
Sound No. 2, Sound No. 3, etc.

SYMBOLS.

To a certain extent this is frequently done, but all
students feel that in addition to such numbers, each
sound ought to be associated with some symbol or
letter just as each musical note is associated with a
symbol or written note.

Few things are easier than to compose a rough and
ready phonetic alphabet, but few things are more
difficult than to draw up a simple yet consistent and
adequate system suitable for applying to all languages.

THE PHONETIC ALPHABET.

The system devised by the International Phonetic
Association possesses these qualities in a high degree,
and has, moreover, the advantage of being in actual use
in all countries where phonetics is studied.

The uninitiated may ask why the compilers of this
alphabet, instead of including strange forms such as
[9], [J] or [rj], should not have contented themselves with
the more familiar forms of the Anglo-Latin alphabet.

Those who ask this very natural question have perhaps
lost sight of the fact that the Anglo-Latin alphabet con-
tams but 26 letters, whereas most languages (including
English and French) contain nearly 40 distinct sounds.

4 ENGLISH PHONETICS

When we add that a catalogue of sounds culled from the
dozen or so most studied languages will embrace nearly
100 distinct sounds, it will be manifest that our classical
Anglo-Latin alphabet is hopelessly inadequate for the
purposes of a simple notation.

DIFFICULT AND EASY ALPHABETS.

To those who say that symbols such as [9], [J] or [g] are
" difficult " we would mention the self-evident axiom
that the degree of difficulty of a given alphabet is not to be
measured by the number of strange letters, but by the extent
to which one letter is made to represent two or more sounds.

If a given alphabet contains 26 letters in order to
represent 40 sounds, that alphabet is an exceedingly
difficult one, even if all the letters have familiar shapes.
If a given alphabet contains 40 letters in order to repre-
sent 40 sounds, that alphabet is an exceedingly easy one,
even if all the letters have totally unfamiliar shapes.

The Russian alphabet is difficult not because it con-
tains a large number of letters, nor because most of
them have unfamiliar shapes, but because they do not
correspond consistently with the sounds of the Russian
language.

Let it be remembered that while any student can
master the shapes of a dozen or so strange letters in the
course of an hour, it may probably require months to
master the articulation of a single difficult foreign sound.

The phonetic alphabet as applied to English contains
but twelve " strange letters," even when we include
among these such forms as [a], [3] or [se].

THE ANCIENT AND MODERN POINTS OF VIEW.

Before starting to work on a course of phonetics, the
student would do well to realize the essential difference
between the modem and the antiquated points of view
of the study of pronunciation.

The old-fashioned (and hopelessly impossible) idea
was to teach first the conventional spelling of languages
such as English ar French, and then to draw up and
learn by heart a bookful of so-called "rules" showing
how to pronounce it.

WHAT IS PHONETICS ? ' 5

The modem idea is to teach first the sounds of the
foreign language (thus enabhng the student to speak and
to understand), reserving for a later stage the acquiring
of the ability to read and to represent the conventional
orthographic forms of the sounds he has learnt.

This is the method which has always been in use by
the native users of language. Long before ever learning
our native alphabet we have already learnt to produce
and to recognise all our native sounds, and to use them
in the form of syllables, words and sentences. Before
ever learning to read our own language, we are famihar
with some thousands of words in their phonetic aspect.

SUBSTANCE AND SHADOW.

In other terms, according to the modern idea, students
are taught to do for the foreign language exactly what
they have already successfully done for their native
tongue ; they are taught not to leave the substance of
speech for the shadow of its orthographic representation,
but to grasp the substance, and by so doing, to acquire
both substance and shadow.

A DIFFICULT AND UNNATURAL PROGRAMME.

To those whose sole aim is to acquire the power of
reading or writing, to those who will never have either
occasion nor opportunity to speak or to hear the language,
to those who have no ambition whatever in the direction
of spoken language, we would say : Go your waj^ ; leave
alone not only phonetics but also abandon all pretensions
whatever towards the spoken aspect of language ; let
there be no talk of pronunciation, for the subject is of no
interest to you, confine your attention to the particular
end you have in view.

To those who desire, in addition to the power of
reading and writing, a smattering of pronunciation on
an orthographic or orthoepic basis by non-systematic
methods, we would say : Your programme is an un-
natural one, it will do violence to the nature of language
itself, and nature will retaliate by so deadening your
ears and so weakening your powers of imitation that,
should you subsequently wish to do so, you will be

6 ENGLISH PHONETICS

unable to correct the vicious habits that will have been
engendered by your neglect.

To those who think that this programme has at least
the saving grace of facility, we would say : You are
mistaken ; your progranmie, in addition to being un-
sound, is also extremely difficult. Many students have
adopted the modern idea because by so doing they cir-
cumvent the tediousness and drudgery of the orthoepic
system now discredited on every count.

THE STUDY OF SOUNDS,
THEIR FORMATION AND CLASSIFICATION.

{With particular reference to English sounds).

The basis of speech sounds is the current of air flowing
up from the lungs and modified in various ways during
its passage through the vocal chords, the mouth and the
nose.

All sounds are divided into two main classes :

(i). Those produced wdthout any obstruction of the
air passage ;

(2). Those produced by some form of obstruction of the
air passage.

For the sake of simplicity and conciseness, we may call
the iormer vowels, and the latter consonants. Strictly
speaking, we should call them respectively vowel-sounds
and consonant-sounds, in order to distinguish them from
vowel-letters and consonant-letters. '

The student of letters says that there are in English
5 vowels, 19 consonants, and 2 letters {w and y) which
may be vowels or consonants ; the student of sounds
says that there are in English 12 simple vowels, and 23
consonants, without counting a certain number of
double vowels (called diphthongs), and double consonants
(called affricates).

The 12 non-obstruction or vowel-sounds used m
Southern English are

The
/owel in

see

gzVe

td;n

hack

calm

stop

a\\

book

the phonetic symbol
for which is

i (or i)
e

u {or u)

ENGLISH PHONETICS

10.

[II.

The
vowel in

too

the phonetic symbol
for which is

up
bird

The first sound in

i 12. . . . . «gain . . . . 9

English people with no phonetic training are not
conscious of the existence of most of these vowel-sounds ;
they imagine No. 3 to be what they call the " short form "
of No. i; No. 4 to be the "short form" of No. 5, and
others to be the "short forms" of .certain diphthongs.

In addition to the above 12 ptdre (or simple) vowels,
there are 9 double-vowels (or diphthongs) :

The compound
vowel in

13. . . . . late

14 SO

15. . . . . five

16. . . . . no?:£;
bojy
dear
where

the phonetic symbol
for which is

17.
18.
19.
20.
21.

raore
sure

S9
09
U9

English people with no phonetic training are perfectly
unconscious that many of these sounds (particularly
Nos. 13, 14 and 15) are compound vowel-sounds. This
is due to the fact that they are generally written with
simple vowel-letters.

The 23 obstruction or consonant-sounds of Southern
English are

The first the phonetic symbol

sound in for which is

put

25
26
27
28
29

take

come

THE STUDY OF SOUNDS

The last

the phonetic syrmboj

sound in

for which is

brin^

.. r)

The first sound in

W3.it

five

.. f

?;ery

thin

.. e

then

.. a

rose

r (or-i)

yes

•• J

.. h

nnc

sAiit

• • J

The buzzing soun

din

pleasure

The first sound in

.. 1

The last sound in

tell

. . \ (oy 1)*

31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38

41
42

English people with no phonetic training will not
recognise an}^ of those consonant-sounds which do not
correspond to some definite letter of the ordinary English
alphabet. They will imagine Nos. 30 and 41 to be double
consonants, they will be unconscious of any difference
between Nos. 34 and 35, or between Nos. 43 and 44.
They will be unconscious of the very existence of sound
No. 42.

Although any two successive consonant-sounds may
become assimilated into what we call a double-consonant,
it will be convenient to note the two following compounds
owing to the fact that they are considered by many as
single sounds :

The first (and last) the phonetic symbol

45-
46.

sounds of

church
judge

for which is

* There is no significative difference between Nos. 43 and 44 ;
the former is used when followed by a vowel-sound and the
latter in all other cases. For this reason in an ordinary phonetic
transcript the symbol [i] is usually replaced by [1].

ENGLISH PHONETICS

Before proceeding any further in the classification of
these sounds we shall do well to examine the following
diagram, in which the principal organs of speech are
shown :

Larynx

Fig. I.*

LL. The lips.

TT. The teeth.

TR. The teeth-ridge {or simply ridge).

* Keproduced by permission from the " Outhne of EngUsh
Phonetics," by D. Jones.

THE STUDY OF SOUNDS ii

Bl. The blade of the tongue. (The flexible fore-part of the

tongue ; the only part of the tongue which can project

from the mouth).
H. The hard palate (extending from the ridge to the soft

palate) .
F. The front of the tongue. (That part which, when in a state

of rest, is opposite the hard palate).

S. The soft palate '(which may be raised or lowered, and which
may also be made to close or open the passage to the
nasal cavity).

B. The back of the tongue. (That part which, when in a state
of rest, is opposite the soft palate.)

U. The uvula. (Not used in the production of any English
sounds.)

P. The pharynx. ^

7- T-u • r 4-4-- Not used in the production of

E. The epiglottis. speech-sounds.

FP. The food passage '

V. The vocal chords (similar to a pair of lips) .

W. The windpipe (leading to the lungs or " bellows "),

The student should now study the above diagram
attentively. He should then make a more or less rough
copy from memory, compare it with the original and
correct any errors. This operation should be repeated
until he can produce a faultless copy without any hesi-
tation. By so doing he will not only render his subse-
quent work very easy but will also generate an intense
interest in phonetic work in general.

Before proceeding to the study of sounds i to 21 (the
vowel-sounds) we will examine the easier theory of
consonant-sounds.

We have already stated that a consonant-sound is
produced by means of an obstruction in the air passage.
Theoretically it is possible to form obstructions at almost
any point from the hps to the vocal cords, but in practice
we find eight well-defined spots at which obstructions
are generally formed.

Let us number these obstruction-points from i to 8,
^S shown in the following diagram ;

ENGLISH PHONETICS

Fig. 2.

1. The lip-lip (or bilabial) obstruction, as when we pronounce
p in put.

2. The teeth -lip (or labio-dental) obstruction, as when we
pronounce / in five.

3. The teeth-blade (or linguo-dental) obstruction, as when
we pronounce th in thin.

4. The ridge-blade (or alveolar) obstruction, as , when we
pronounce t in take.

' 5. The hard palate-front (or palatal) obstruction, as when
we pronounce y in yes.

6. The soft palate-back (or velar) obstruction, as when we
pronounce c in come.

7. The uvula-back (or uvular) obstruction, as when we
gargle.

8. The vocal chords (or glottal) obstruction, ^as when we cough.

THE STUDY OF SOUNDS 13

Now there are three ways of classifying consonant-
sounds. (We may call these the three bases of consonant
classification) .

The first is that in which we consider the consonants
according to the place where the obstruction or obstruc-
tions are formed.

If we pronounce carefully and correctly the 23 English
consonant-sounds (not the letters of the alphabet, but a
specimen of each sound), we shall discover that they are
disposed in this respect as follows :
Obstruction Place

:e I.

p, b, m, w."^

f, V.

9,5.

t, d, n, r, s, z, J, 3,

u.t

5.'^

j (the sound of jy in yes).

6. '

k, g, g, w.*

(None).

It would be well to read over the above several times
and to check each statement by experiment until this
first basis is perfectly understood. Be very careful not
to confuse consonant-sounds with the names of consonant-
letters. There is an enormous difference between [6] and
tee-aitch, or between [w] and douhle-you, or between [g]
and djee.

The second way to classify consonant-sounds is to
consider, not the place, but the kind or degree of obstruc-
tion. Broadly speaking, we may in this respect deter-
mine two main classes : Complete Obstructions (in
which the passage is so closed that no air can issue at
all), and Incomplete Obstructions (permitting the air
to escape more or less easily through the imperfect
obstacle) .

* [w] is a sound with a double obstruction, one being in the
No. I and the other in the No. 6 position.

t [i] will be found to be accompanied by a " narrowing " (not
an " obstruction ") in the No. 6 position.

14 ENGLISH PHONETICS

Complete Obstructions. — The sounds which result
from complete obstructions are of two classes : Plosives
and Nasals.

1. Plosives. — In this case both nasal and oral pas-
sages are completely closed in order to imprison and
compress the air ; then by suddenly removing the mouth
obstruction, this compressed air bursts out in a puff or
explosion (whence the term plosive).

In English we place in this category the sounds [p],
[b], [t], [d], [k], and [g]. ^

2. 'Nasals. In this case we make once again a com-
plete obstruction of the mouth passage at a given point,
but instead of compressing and exploding the air we
allow it from the start to pass steadily through the nose
(whence the term nasal).

In English we place in this category the sounds
[m], [n], and [i]].

(In order to produce these sounds as distinct from
liters, let us close the two hps and hum a note ; the
result will be [m]. Similarly by obstructing in the
No. 4 and No. 6 positions, our hummed note will result
respectively in [n] and [g].)

Incomplete Obstructions. — The sounds which result
from incomplete obstructions may be divided into three
classes : Simple Fricatives, Sibilant Fricatives and Lateral
Fricatives.

I. Simple Fricatives. In this case we bring the ad-
jacent parts towards each other very closely, but not
so ::losely as to prevent the air from forcing its way
through, [f] is a typical fricative ; produce a [f] and
prolong it so as to make it last five or six seconds, and
you will perceive that the air is escaping between the
top teeth and lower lip in a steady stream. It is a
rubbing or frictional sound (what the French would call
3i frolement) , whence the ierni fricative.

The English simple fricatives are generally considered
to be [w], [f], [V], [9], [5], [r], [j], and [h].

The effect of these may be compared to the noise made
by an escaping jet of steam or^gas.

THE STUDY OF SOUNDS 15

2. Sibilant Fricatives. — Four particularly shrill varieties
of fricatives, viz. [s], [z], [J], and [3], are produced by
forcing the air through particular kinds of obstruction
formed (in No. 4 position) by the blade of the tongue
and the ridge ; these are called Sibilant Fricatives or
Sibilants.

3. Lateral Fricatives. — The two sounds [1] and [1] are
called lateral fricatives (or simply laterals) because the
tip of the tongue being firmly pressed against the ridge,
the air can only issue round the side or sides of the
raised blade.

Affricates. — There are two of these in English, viz.
[tj] and [d3] ; they are compound sounds of which the
first element is a plosive and the second a sibilant
fricative.

In French and other languages there are one or more
sounds called trills. These consist of producing a
vibration, roll, or trill at a given point of obstruction.
These participate in the nature of both plosives and
fricatives. No trills exist in Southern English, and the
average English student finds it very difficult to produce
them.

The third way to classify consonant-sounds is to
divide them according to whether they are noises made
by the air alone or whether this air-noise is accompanied
by the voice.

What we call voice is the vibration of the vocal chords.
By means of certain muscles we can so place these
" lips of the throat " that they will vibrate and produce
a musical note. This noise may be added to that pro-
duced by the air at the other places of obstruction. Thus
by adding voice to the air-noise made in articulating a
[f], we produce the sound [v].

Every consonant* may be voiced or voiceless ; in all

♦ With the exception of a certain sound known as the glottal
stop, which does not occur in normal English,

ENGLISH PHONETICS

languages we find such pairs of consonants, but in most
languages there appear to be gaps on one side or the
other (voiced consonants w^ithout any corresponding
voiceless, and vice-versa).*

The following list will show the English consonants
classified on this vocalic basis :

Voiceless
onsonants. <

P •

Voiced
[Consonants

. b
. d

k .

• g

. m

. n

• 0

. w

. V

e .

. a

. r

h .

• J

I •

• 3
. 1

. i

tj .

• d3

The three bases of classification can now be shown in
the form of a table :

* It should be noted that even the missing sounds are some-
times produced in a given language by accidents of assimilation.
The English sound [r], for instance, is normally voiced, but often
becomes unvoiced in such words as try or cry. It should, how-
ever, be noted that such pairs of consonants correspond to no
significative difference in English ; should we vocalize the [r] in
question, it will result in no difference of meaning, whereas if
we replace [f] by [v] (e.g. view for few) we change the meaning
of tlie word.

THE STUDY OF SOUNDS

Vocal
Chords.

■

1
^

Uvula
Far-back.

Soft Palate
Back.

cr.

Hard Palate
Front.

Ridge
Blade.

SI ^o

4->

Teeth
Blade.

Teeth
Lip.

M-l

Lateral
Fricatives

suoT:).onj:>.sqo

suoipnj:^sqo
gr^aidmooui

ENGLISH PHONETICS

The following diagram will serv^e as a summary of what
we have stated concerning the classification of consonant-
sounds :

Jjf

•

u
CO

.§

j2i

•X3

U-

1
JS

'co
O

r<^

«^

^ ^

^ **•*

.4^

iss:.s

m...p^

-rs

•

c£^

Ili

«9

«c

JLJ

f5^

T-g

ef)

'§^

tie

THE STUDY OF SOUNDS 19

The classification of vowel-sounds is more difficult
owing to the fact that instead of three there are seven
bases of classification, and that their positions are less
well defined.

As we have already noted, vowel-sounds are produced
by a modification of the air without any obstruction ;
consequently there is no question either of the place nor
of the kind of obstruction. As, moreover, all vowel-
sounds are by definition voiced sounds, there is no
question of their classification into voiced and voiceless.

Each of the vowel-sounds is the result of the shape of
the cavity through which the voiced air is projected.
The mouth cavity may vary in extent and in form accord-
ing to the degree in which the front or back of the tongue
is raised or lowered ; it may vary according to whether
the lips are rounded or spread ; it may vary according
to whether the nose cavity is utihzed or not, and may
also vary according to the degree of tenseness or laxity
in which the muscles of the mouth are held. The sum
of these variations results in a very large number of
sounds each of which is felt to be quite distinct from
the others.

The first basis of classification is the height of the
tongue.*

The tongue may be so high as to make the air passage
particularly narrow, or it may be so low as to render the
air passage particularly large, t

The tongue is generally raised or lowered by the exer-
cise of its own muscles; the movement is generally
also accompanied by a closing or opening of the jaws.
For this reason we speak of close and open vowels ; it
would, however, be equally clear to speak of high and
low vowels.

In English the close vowels are [i:] (as in see), [i] (as

* Let us remember, when we speak of the tongue in connection
with the production of vowel-sounds, that we mean solely the
front and the back, for the blade has no influence whatever in
the formation of these sounds.

t If the tongue is so high as to produce audible friction, the
result will be, not a vowel, but a consonant. .

20 ENGLISH PHONETICS

in give), [u:] (as in too), and [u] (as in book). In all these
cases the tongue is high and the jaws close. We may
confirm this by consulting our mirror.

The open (or low) vowels are [a:] (as in ask) and [a]
(as in cut). If we look in the mirror we shall see that
they do not obstruct our view of the throat.

Between the two extreme degrees we find the semi-
close vowel [e] (as in ten), and the semi-open vowels [ae]
(as in hat), [o] (as in stop), [o:] (as in all), [a:] (as in first),
and [9] (as in again).

The second basis of classification considers whether
the front or the back of the tongue is utilized. We dis-
cover by experiment that for certain sounds the front
(not the blade) of the tongue is bunched up, and that
for others there is a bunching up of the back. In the
former case the result is a front vowel, in the latter case
a back vowel.

The English front vowels are [i:], [i], [e], and [ae].

The back vowels are [u:], [u], [d:], [o], and [a:].

In addition to these we find three mixed vowels to
produce which the tongue is bunched up in the middle.

The English mixed vowels are [a], [9:], and [9].

An important point is now to be noted : From the
very nature of the tongue and its muscles, the distance
separating the high back and front vowels is very great,
but in proportion as the tongue descends, the distance is
lessened. When the tongue is at its lowest point there
is no bunching up at all either in the front or back.

All the tongue positions may therefore be shown in the
form of a triangle {see Figs. 5 and 6) , the (inverted) apex
of which shows the lowest point and the two other angles
respectively the front vowel [i:] and the back vowel [u:].

The third basis of classification concerns the position
of the lips. A glance at the mirror will demonstrate
that for [ui], [u] and [o:] the lips are rounded and some-
what pushed forward ; that for [ii], [i] and [e] the lips
are unrounded and in a spread position, and that for
the remaining vowels the lips are in an intermediate
position. In French and other languages the significa-
tion of certain words depends on whether the lips are

THE STUDY OF SOUNDS -ix

munded or unrounded. This is not the case in English,
consequently the position of the hps in respect of this
language is of minor importance.

lit—

dose -^ ;\

-^ V.

Senti' close \ \

■"S^ ■/-■■\:o-

^%%tr"- \

"^SS/5

Fig. 5. The Vowel Triangle.

Fig. 6. The same triangle
mouth cavity.

)\viiiL< its relation towards the

The fourth basis of classification divides vowels ac-
cording to whether the nasal passage is closed or open.
As no English vowels are nasalized, we will merely note
in passing the four French vowels in " Un bon vin
blanc " are produced by the voiced breath passing
simultaneously through the mouth and nose cavities.

The fifth basis concerns the degree of tenseness or
laxity of the muscles of the mouth. When pronouncing
[i:] (as in see), or [u:] (as in too), the muscles are felt to

ENGLISH PHONETICS

be rigid or tense ; when pronouncing [i] (as in give), or
[u] (as in book) , they are felt to be lax.

The EngHsh tense vowels are [i:l , [oi] , [u:] , and [ai] ; the
others are articulated laxly and without muscular effort.

If we consider vowel-sounds purely and simply from the
point of view of their quality, without any reference to
their attributes and distribution, we can only classify
them in these five different ways. For the purposes of
this brief and necessarily abridged outline for the use of
beginners, we shall find it convenient to include here
two additional bases of classification {length and pure-
ness). We shall call these respectively the sixth and
seventh bases of classification.

The sixth basis classifies vowels according to whether
they are long or short. Long vowels are indicated in a
phonetic text by adding [:] as a mark of length.

The English long vowels are [ii], [ai], [or], [ui], and
[91], the rest are short.

A seventh and last basis of classification may conveni-
ently be added by dividing vowel-sounds into two classes
according to whether they are pure (or single) vowels or
whether they are double vowels. The latter are produced
by a rapid movement of the tongue from one point of the
triangle to another. So different indeed are the double
from the single vowels that they are generally considered
as an entirel}^ distinct class of sounds called diphthongs.

If we place the tip of the finger on the front (not the
blade) of the tongue, and pronounce the word ache, we
shall feel the movement of the tongue as it passes from
the [e]-position to the [i]-position.

Similarly, if we look into the mirror while pronouncing
the word go, we shall see that the lips are being rounded
during the emission of the vowel.

In addition to the vowels numbered from i to 12,
there exist three other vowels which only occur in diph-
thongs, viz. [e], [a] and [o].

[s] is about the same as the French sound of e in pere.

[a] is similar to [a], but is nearer to the French sound
of a in dame.

THE STUDY OF SOUNDS

[o] is not far removed from the French sound of 6 in cote.

The Enghsh dipththongs (or double-vowels) are those
numbered from 13 to 21. The last four (in view of the
fact that the tongue passes from the sides to the centre
of the triangle) may conveniently be termed the Centring
Diphthongs.

In the two following diagrams the diphthongs are
shown by means of arrows, as illustrative of the move-
ment of the tongue during their emission.

I'lg. 8. The Centring Diphthongs.

ENGLISH PHONETICS

We may sum up the seven bases of the classification
of vowel-sounds by the following diagram, which will
serve as a recapitulation of the subject :

Fig. 9. The seven bases of classification off/>vowel-sounds
(including the two vowel attributes length a.nd pureness).

THE STUDY OF SOUNDS 25

The importance of the classification of sounds lies in
the fact that it enables us to diagnose (and thereby to
correct) any conceivable mistake in pronunciation. A
certain French student produces a sound which he
imagines to be [9]. The untrained English teacher will
tell him that it is wrong, but will be unable to point out
in what respect it is wrong. The trained teacher will
hear at once that a plosive is being produced instead of
the required fricative. He will say : "Do not explode
the sound, let the air stream out softly "; the result will
be the perfect [6].

When the classification is properly understood, a
large number of faulty sounds may be corrected with the
greatest ease, not only by the teacher, but also by the
student himself. To illustrate the point we will append
a few examples chosen at random.

1. English students of French usually consider that
French u (in vu) is a variety of the English vowel [ui]
(sound No. 9). They should reahze that an English [i:]
(sound No. i), pronounced while the lips are rounded (as
for whistling) will generally result in a perfect French u.

2. French students of English usually consider that
English [a] (sound No. 10) is a sort of French eu (in
veuve). They should be told that the sound in question
is hardly distinguishable from French a in dame.

3. English students of French usually identify
French a (in dame) either with English [ae] (sound No. 4),
or with Enghsh [ai] (sound No. y . They should be told
that the sound in question is hardly distinguishable
from (Southern) English [a] (sound No. 10).

4. Most foreign students of English have been led to
consider that the vowel in late is a sort of French e (in
ete). They should know that this is a double- vowel (or
diphthong), the first element of which is very often
French e and the second of which is not far removed
from French i in si.

5. When the foreign student realizes that English
[r] is practically the fricative form of EngUsh [d], he
will cease to produce those trills or scraping throat
sounds which he has made serve as substitutes.

26 ENGLISH PHONETICS

6. A French student may have been trying for years
to produce an EngUsh [g], but when he reahzes that
'[r)] is to [g] what [n] is to [d], he will instantly produce
the required sound.

7. When French or English students grasp the fact
that German ch (in tch) is the voiceless counterpart of
the sound y in yes, they will no longer substitute for
this sound a [J] or a [k].

8. When a Spaniard learns the nature of a plosive,
and realizes that English or French [b], [d], and [g] are
plosives, he will cease to replace these by their corre-
sponding fricatives.

9. When a Dutch or Flemish student realizes that
English and French [g] is a plosive, and that his native
g (in gaan) is a fricative, he will understand how to
direct his efforts in order to produce the required sound.

TO. When the French student realizes that English
[i:J is always twice as long as the French i (in si), he will
no longer say [ai si] for [ai si:].

II. When English students realize the true nature
of nasal sounds, they will no longer be content to replace
*' ce bo v£ bla " by " oei) bor) vsq blar]."

QUESTIONS ON THE PHONETIC THEORY.

The object of these questions is to ascertain whether
the student has thoroughly grasped the explanations
given. in the preceding pages. The answers should be
written by the student in the first instance without con-
sulting the pages in question, but may subsequently be
compared with this explanatory matter in order to
check their accuracy.

1. If somebody asked you the question, " What is
Phonetics ? " what answer would you give ?

2. What do you understand by the terms known
sounds and unknown sounds ?

3. In what way does Phonetics enable us to under-
stand and to produce unknown sounds ?

4. Is it true to say that phonetics replaces imitation
by understanding ?

5. What answer would you give to anybody who
stated that he wished to learn about English pronuncia-
tion but not about Enghsh phonetics ?

6. When we are told that the English letter a has
five regular pronunciations (viz. : (i) as in day, (2) as in
hat, (3) as in all, (4) as in ask, (5) as in ago), is this infor-
mation of a phonetic or of an orthoepic nature ?

7. Quote one or more current misapprehensions
concerning the nature of Phonetics.

8. On what grounds can we explain the fact that
man}^ people consider the phonetic alphabet difficult or
complicated ?

9. When we are told that the English letter r is pro-
nounced before a vowel but not otherwise, is this infor-
mation of a phonetic or of an orthoepic nature ?

28 ENGLISH PHONETICS

10. What answer would you give to anybody who
said : " Phonetics — oh yes, that is a sort of speUing
reform — ^write as you speak " ?

11. What is really meant by a difficult alphabet ?
What is the difference between a difficult alphabet and
an easy one ?

12. When we are told that the vowel in see is long
and tense, is this information of a phonetic or of an
orthoepic nature ?

13. What do you understand by " a catalogue of
sounds " ?

14. How is it that so many English people are unable
to produce the French u in vu ?

15. Why must we use a phonetic notation when
writing about sounds or in explaining the differences
between various sounds ?

16. With what may a phonetic notation be aptly
compared ? What analogies does it suggest ?

17. On what grounds is it generally recommended to
studentsyto use the alphabet of the International
Phonetic Association ?

18. Why are " strange letters " (such as [9], [0] or
[13]) indispensable in a simple phonetic notation ?

19. Show by examples that the traditional English
and French spellings of words are unphonetic, i.e. that
English and French letters do not represent with any
consistency English and French sounds.

20. Why is the Russian alphabet difficult ?

21. How many " strange letters " are there in the
phonetic alphabet as applied to English ?

22. Express concisely the difference between the
old-fashioned and the modem points of view with regard
to the teaching of pronunciation ?

23. Express the same difference more amply, com-
paring either or both methods with that naturally
adopted by the child learning his mother-tongue.

24. In what cases may we recommend a student to
pay no attention whatever to phonetics ?

25. Show why the study of pronunciation on an
orthoepic basis is a vicious and harmful proceeding.

QUESTIONS ON THE PHONETIC THEORY 29

26. Define the term orthoepy.

27. What is the basis of speech sounds ?

28. What is the difference between a vowel-sound
and a vowel-letter ?

29. Into what two main divisions may all speech
sounds be classed ?

30. How many vowel-letters are there in the English
alphabet ? And how many simple vowel-sounds in the
English phonetic system ?

31. Is the first element of the English word use a
consonant or a vowel ?

32. A classical orthoepic rule tells us that the in-
definite article a becomes an when the following word
begins by a vowel. How does this agree with the fact
that we write and say a unit and not an unit ?

33. Which are the 12 English simple vowel-sounds ?
Give one example of each in the form of a monosyllabic
word.

34. Why are untrained English people generally un-
aware that many of these vowel-sounds exist ?

35. Which are the nine compound- vowels (or
diphthongs) ? Give an example of each.

36. Which of these are generally unrecognised by
English people, and why ?

37. Why is it generally unnecessary to make use of
the symbol [i] ?

38. Which two English compound consonants re-
quire special attention, and why ?

39. Name the principal organs of speech.

40. Define the terms blade, vocal chords, soft palate,
front, nasal cavity, ridge, and hack.

41. W^hat is the function of the uvula in connection
with English sounds ?

42. How is the passage to the nasal cavity opened
and closed ?

43. Make a copy from memory of the diagram show-
ing the various vocal organs.

44. What is a consonant-sound ?

45. How many well-defined points are there at which
an obstruction may be formed ?

30 ENGLISH PHONETICS

46. Name each of these.

47. Ilhistrate them by means of a diagram.

48. In how many ways may we classify consonants ?

49. What is the first basis of classification of con-
sonants ?

50. Give examples of consonants characteristic of
each of the obstruction places.

51. Are any English consonants formed by means
of a double obstruction ?

52. What is the second basis of the classification of
consonants ?

53. Define a plosive consonant.

54. Which are the English plosive consonants ?

55. Define a nasal consonant.

56. Which are the English nasal consonants, and
which of these (if any) do not exist in French ?

57. Describe the formation of [m], [n] and [ij].

58. Define incomplete obstructions.

59. Which arc the English simple fricatives ?

60. Describe the formation of [f], [9] and [rj.

61. Which are the sibilant fricatives ?

62. Describe the formation of [J].

63. Which are the lateral fricatives ?

64. Describe the formation of [1].

65. How many trills exist in Enghsh ?

66. Which is the third basis of classification of con-
sonants ?

67. What is voice ?

68. What is the difference between [f] and [vl ?

69. May all consonants be voiced or voiceless ?

70. Is the English [r] voiced ?

71. Give the voiceless equivalents of [b], [5], [z],
and[d3].

72. Give the voiced equivalents of [s], [f], [k], and

[jj.

73. Construct a diagram containing all the English
consonants.

74. What are vowel-sounds ?

75. How many bases of classification may conven-
iently be used in studying vowel-sounds ?

QUESTIONS ON THE PHONETIC THEORY 31

76. What is the cause of the difference between any
one vowel and another ?

77. What is the first basis of classification of vowel-
sounds ?

78. What part or parts of the tongue are used in
the production of different sorts of vowels ?

79. In what way does the blade affect the quality of
vowels ?

80. What happens when the tongue is so high as to
produce audible friction ?

81. How do we generally raise and lower the tongue ?

82. Pronounce [iiaiiiai] and describe what happens.

83. Which are the English close (or high) vowels ?

84. Which are the English open (or low) vowels ?

85. Which are the English semi -open and semi-close
vowels ?

86. What is the second basis of classification of
vowels ?

Sy. Describe the formation of [iil and of [u:].
^S. Is [i:] a front or a back vowel ?

89. What do you understand by a front vowel ?

90. Is [9:] a front or a back vowel ?

91. Place the tip of your finger on the front of the
tongue ; pronounce [iiuiiiui] and describe what happens.

92. How many mixed vowels are there in English ?

93. Which is the greater distance ; that between
[i:] and [u:], or that between [ae] and [o] ?

94. Give the reason for your last answer.

95. Explain why the vowels are placed on a triangl-e
and not on a square.

96. Draw the vowel triangle and indicate the posi-
tions of the Enghsh vowels.

97. What is the third basis of classification of vowels ?

98. Look in the mirror ; pronounce [iiuiiiui] and
describe what you see.

99. Which are the English rounded vowels ?

100. What is the fourth basis of classification of
vowels ?

loi. Why is this basis of little utility when studying
EngHsh ?

ENGLISH PHONETICS

102. Do you know any language in which certain
vowels are formed by the aid of the nasal cavity

103. What is the fifth basis of classification of vowels ?

104. What do you understand by the terms tense and
lax ?

105. Which are the English tense vowels ?

106. Which is the sixth basis of the classification of
vowels ?

107. By what sign do we mark length ?

108. What do we mean by long vowels ?

109. What is the last basis of classification of vowels ?
no. What do you understand by the term compound-
vowel ?

111. What are compound-vowels generally called ?

112. Place the finger-tip on the front of the tongue,
pronounce the English word ache, and describe carefully
what happens.

113. Look in the mirror ; pronounce the English
word go and describe carefully what you see.

114. What is the peculiarity in the English language
about the sounds [a] , [o] and [s] ?

115. To which diphthongs may we apply the term
centring, and why ?

116. Why are diphthongs represented on the triangle
by arrows ?

117. Draw the vowel triangle and represent thereon
the five chief diphthongs.

118. What term may we use to designate the diph-
thongs [ei] and [ai] ?

119. What term may we use to designate the diph-
thong [ou] ?

120. Draw the vowel triangle and represent thereon
the four centring diphthongs.

121. What are the three bases of the classification of
consonants ?

122. What are the seven bases of the classification
of vowels ?

123. Why is it important to know how sounds are
classified ?

PART II.

SYSTEMATIC ARTICULATION EXERCISES.

(Arranged more especially for the use of foreign students).

Before attempting the reproduction of English sounds
(presuming Enghsh to be the foreign language), first
learn to isolate various sounds of your [own language.
The object in so doing is twofold :

(a) To overcome that shyness and nervous hesitation
which in so many cases prevents students from producing
that long and steady emission of sound which is the first
essential in systematic phonetic work.

(h) To become perfectly conscious of the known sounds
and to gain perfect command over them as a preparation
for the more difficult work of producing unknown sounds.

While performing the following exercises the student
should note the positions of the vocal organs ; to this
effect he should make constant use of the mirror in order
to see what is happening, and of his finger-tip in order to
feel what is happening. Systematic observation and
experiment will eventually give the student an almost
perfect command over his organs of articulation.

1. Articulate steadily and distinctly such of the
following sounds* as happen to be known to you, giving
a duration to each of at least four seconds :

a:, ii, ui, e:, or, mi, ni, w:, v:, zi, 3:, ji, 1:, fi, s:, Ji.

2. Articulate steadily and distinctly such of the
following plosives as happen to be known to you. Each
sound should be repeated eight times in four seconds :

p-p-p-p-p-p-p-p, t-t-t-t-t-t-t-t, k-k-k-k-k-k-k-k,
b-b-b-b-b-b-b-b, d-d-d-d-d-d-d-d, g-g-g-g-g-g-g-g-

* In this and the following exercises, be very careful to pro-
nounce the sounds themselves, and not the name of the letter
representing them.

34 ENGLISH PHONETICS

In exercises 3 to 15, should anf of the three vowels
treated be a sound unknown to the student, it may be
replaced by the nearest known sound.

3. Articulate a: — ii, a: — i:, a:— i:, giving a duration
of two seconds to each sound. Observe what movement
takes place (a) by consulting the mirror, and (b) by
placing the thumb underneath the chin.

4. Articulate i: — a:, i: — a:, ii — a:.

5. Articulate ii — u:, ii — u:, i: — u:.

Place the tip of the finger on the front (not the blade)
of the tongue to ascertain what happens during exercises
6 and 7.

6. Articulate ui — ii, ui — i:, u: — i:.

7. Articulate a: — ui, a:— -u:, a: — ui.

8. Articulate u: — a:, u: — a:, u: — a:.

[a], [i] and [u] are the three primary vowels, as they
represent the extreme limits of the radius of the tongue.
Nos. 9 to 14 to be repeated at least three times each.

9. i: — a: — ui.

10. a: — UI — ii.

11. u: — ^i: — a:.

12. u: — a: — i:.

13. ii — u: — ai.

14. a: — i: — ui.

(Similar exercises may be devised by ringing the
changes on [a:,] [i:], [u:], [e:], and [01], or their nearest
" known " neighbours.)

Independently of any consideration of known or un-
known sounds, and without any reference to phonetic
symbols or to alphabetic letters, the pupil should now
practise the formation of unvoiced fricative sounds in
all the possible places of obstruction. In each case a
duration of not less than 4 seconds is essential.

15. Close the lips loosely and pass the air between
them. The result will be the " lip-hp fricative." (This
is the " Japanese/," the phonetic sjniibol for which is F.)

16. . Bring the lower lip against the edge of the upper
teeth and pass the air through the obstruction. (This
will result in an ordinary/.)

17. Bring the upper hp against the edge of the lower

SYSTEMATIC ARTICULATION EXERCISES 35

teeth and pass the air through the obstruction. This
position (as far as we know) is not utihzed in any language
but the result will be a sound almost identical with that
of /. The value of this and the following four exercises
consists in causing the pupil to produce sounds on a
physical or organic basis instead of on a visual or graphic
basis. The pupil will grasp the fact (so obvious to
phoneticians) that the sounds of speech are merely
particular noises produced by certain dispositions of the
organs of speech.

18. Place the edge of the tongue-blade hghtly
against the back of a knife or flat ruler and pass the air
through the obstruction. The resulf will be a sound
similar to [f] or [0].

19. Replace the ruler or knife by the upper lip.
Bring the edge of the tongue-blade along the upper lip
and pass the air through the obstruction. The resul-
tant sound will also be similar to [f] or [0].

20. Replace the upper lip by the edge of the upper
front teeth. This will produce the sound [9j.

21. As a varient of 20, let the whole of the tongue-
blade be protruded and held between the upper and
lower teeth, and breathe the air past the obstacle. The
result will be a (somewhat exaggerated) [0].

All the operations from 15 to 21 have been carried out
in positions which enable them to be seen ; the sense of
sight has been used as an auxiliary to the sense of touch.
The next eight exercises have reference to positions not
so easily checked by the eyes.

22. Place the edge of the tongue-blade lightly
against the teeth-ridge and pass the air through the
obstruction. The result will be the sound of the English
unvoiced [r]. Care must be taken to use the edge only
of the tongue-blade. If the blade is so disposed as to
present a more or less flat surface against the ridge, the
result will be the shriller sound of [J].

23. Bring the front (not the blade) of the tongue into
loose contact with the hard palate and pass the air
through the obstacle. This is a more difficult operation
for a beginner, but if performed properly should produce

36 ENGLISH PHONETICS

the unvoiced form of [j] (the unvoiced form of the sound
y in yes). This sound (represented by the phonetic
symbol [9]) is the German sound of ch in ich. It is
often heard as a substitute for EngHsh [h] when followed

by D].

24. Bring the back of the tongue into loose contact
with the soft palate and pass the air through the obstacle.
This is another operation rather difficult for the beginner,
but a valuable exercise in acquiring " consciousness of
articulation." The place of obstruction is that of [k].
Observe in the mirror the formation of the [k] -obstruc-
tion, then, instead of exploding it, cause the air to flow
past the obstacle. The result (represented by the
phonetic symbol [x]) is the German sound of ch in Bach.

25. If voiced air flows past an obstruction formed
at the extreme back of the soft palate (in Obstruction
Place 7) the result will be a sound (represented by the
phonetic symbol [h]), which many French people use as
a substitute for the uvular trilled [r].

26. Open the mouth (as if to produce [a]) and breathe.
The stream of air may be heard flowing past the vocal
chords, and constitutes the sound of which the phonetic
symbol is [h].

27. Refer to exercise 22, and so modify the position
of the blade that a whistling or hissing sound is heard.
This is the sound [s].

28. Another sort of modification of the position of
the blade will result in [J].

29. Press the tip of the blade firmly against the middle
of the teeth-ridge. Pass the air round the sides of the
obstacle, and an unvoiced [1] will be produced.

Voicing and unvoicing practice. The student should
now go through a course of exercises in order to acquire
such control over the vocal chords that he can without
any hesitation voice any voiceless consonant or unvoice
any voiced consonant.

30. Produce (while the teacher beats 8 seconds) the
sound [f]. Again. Again. Now again, but this time,
at the 5th beat, aid the voice, that is to say, sing a note.
The result will be [ffffvvvv].

SYSTEMATIC ARTICULATION EXERCISES 37

31. Produce [v] for the space of 8 seconds. Again,
but this time, at the 5th second, let the musical note
cease. The result will be [vvvvffffj.

This exercise may be appHed to all the fricatives in
exercises 15 to 29.

Exercises 32 to 37 are intended to cause the pupil to
feel the mechanism of nasal consonants.

32. Close the lips and sing a note. The result will
be [m].

33. Form Obstruction No. 2 and sing a note. The
result will be a nasal-sound for which the phonetic
symbol is ig. This sound is sometimes heard as the
pronunciation of English m in the word triumph.

34. Form obstruction No. 3 and sing a note. The
result will be a nasal-sound for which no particular
symbol has so far been chosen. This sound is often
heard as the pronunciation of English n in the word
ninth.

35. Form obstruction No. 4 and sing a note. The
result will be English [n].

36. Form obstruction No. 5 and sing a note. The
result will be the sound of French gn in agneau, for which
the phonetic s\Tiibol is Iji].

37. Form obstruction No. 6 and sing a note. The
result will be the sound represented by [g].

PART III,

SYSTEMATIC EXERCISES ON ENGLISH WORDS.

The objects of this series of 80 exercises are :

{a) To serve as a transition between articulation
exercises and exercises based on connected texts (such
as fluency exercises, phonetic reading and dictation).

(b) To ensure the fluent and accurate pronunciation
of the most common English words.

From these the student will pass to " Fluency Exer-
cises," i.e. the fluent and accurate production of English
sentences. The author's 100 Substitution Tables* are
intended for this purpose.

Each of these 80 exercises should start by " isolating "
the sound which is the object of study. In the case of
the plosives, this isolation should consist of producing
the sound eight times in four seconds. In all the other
cases the sound should be emitted steadily and without
interruption during the whole of the four seconds.

In each case the analysis should be read and compared
with the various diagrams contained in Part I.

The 20 words should then be read distinctly ; in the
first instance each word will be pronounced after the
teacher ; at a subsequent moment the whole list should
be read by the student without oral prompting.

The same process applied to the corresponding lists
in orthographic form (pages 63 to 85) will constitute the
transition from phonetic to the traditional spelling,
and will act as a powerful corrective against the tendency
to pronounce words as they are spelt.

* Published by Heffer, Cambridge.
38

SYSTEMATIC EXERCISES ON ENGLISH WORDS 39

The 80 exercises are divided into four series :

SERIES A (numbered from i to 46), consisting of
the catalogue of EngHsh sounds (including 9 double-
vowels and 2 double-consonants).

SERIES B (numbered from 47 to 52), consisting of
six useful sets of words containing (final or initial) weak
syllables.

SERIES C (numbered from 53 to 80), consisting
of 28 groups of pairs of words likely to be confused by
foreign students of English on account of their similarity.

SERIES D, consisting of 17 transcription exercises.

SERIES A.

The Catalogue of English Sounds.

We have said that the simplest way to learn about
the sounds of a given language is to consult a catalogue
of them, in which each appears in its proper place, is
described, explained and distinguished from its neigh-
bours.

The following is a catalogue of the English sounds,
both single and double. In each case we give the refer-
ence number, symbol and definition of the sound, and
twenty of the most characteristic monosyllabic words
containing it. Blank spaces have been provided so tliat
students of any nationality may add memoranda of
personal rather than of general interest and utility.

2. 3.

i e

Vowel.

Vowel. Vowel.

Front.

Front Front.

Close.

Close. Semi-close.

Tense.

Lax. Lax.

Long.

Short. \ Short.

Notes.

Notes. Notes.

In accordance with In accordance with

the system of sim- the system of sim-

plified notation, the phfied notation, the

symbol for this vow- symbol for this vow-

el is given as [i]. In el is given as [e]. In

a more precise nota- a more precise nota-

tion the symbol [i] ] tion the symbol [e]

is used in order to • is used to distin-

distinguish it from guish it from the

the vowel in the vowel in the French

French word si. word cle'.

biq best

biin

did

els

diip

fil

end

fri:

giv

get

grim

biz

help

kiip

left

milt

m.en

si:

nekst

striit

send

wiik

kwik

tel

i:t

lift

ten

li:v

liv

twelv

mim

mis

wel

pliiz

sins

went

pliizd

sit

wen

riid

siks

jes

spiik

stik

ti:

stil

frend

pi:s

til

sed

ki:

bild

sez

6..

Vowel.

Front.

Back.

Semi-open.

Open.

Semi-open.

Lax.

Short or Long.

Long.

Short.

Notes.

Notes.
In accordance with
the system of sim-
pUfied notation, the
symbol for this vow-
el is given as [o]. In
a more precise nota-
tion the symbol [5]
is used in order to
distinguish it from
the vowel in the

French word fort.

baek

aisk

boks

bcEld

kamt

ikbk

baeig

faist

kost

baer)k

qrais

dog

bl^k

half

drop

drserjk

laist

got

fekt

aim

hot

fet

kaid

nok

flaeig

kait

lokl

flaet

daik

lost

gaes

fa:

lot

glaeid

haid

not

haed]

park

haez

pa:t

pond

haevj

sta:

soft

maem

start

spot

saend

aint

stop

staend

laif

wont

traem

klaik

woj*

plaed

halt

wot

Vowel.

Voie^el.

Vowel.

Back.

Semi-open.

Close.

Rounded.

Tense. Long.

Lax. Short.

Tense. Long.

Notes.

Notes.
In accordance with
the system of sim-
plified notation, the
symbol for this vow-
el is given as [uj. In
a more precise nota-
tion the symbol [u]
is used in order to
distinguish it from
the vowel in the

Notes.

French word bout.

Oil

buk

buit

kDll

kuk

mum

foil

fut

ru:m

smoil

gud

skuil

wo:k

huk

sum

woil

luk

spurn

so:s

Juk

tui

tuk

d^um

so:

wud

ru:l

wo:m

wul

blu:

folk

ful

tru:

ho:s

pul

fruit

soit

puj

du:

bold

put

luiz

boit

kud

mu:v

o:t

Jud

tu:

to:t

wud

hu:

joiz

wulf

suip

o:f

buj

Ju:

toidz

bul

eru;

9a.

10.

11.

ju:

{Identical with 9,

Vowel.

hut preceded by Mixed.

Mixed.

the consonant \ Open.

Semi-close.

[j] ; see No. 37.) Lax.

Tense.

j Short.

Long.

Notes.

Notes.
In a less precise no-
tation this symbol
may be replaced by

Notes.

[a].

kjuib

bAt

bain

djuik

kAp

halt,

djuip

kAt

pais

fjuiz

mAst

tpin

hju:d3

jAt

baid

mjuil

SAn

fa:st

tjuib

ga:l

tjuin

J9:t

ju:s

kAm

h9:d

juiz

dAn

la:n

kju:

lAV

ja:

dju:

nAn

ha:z

ju:

WARS

va:b

jure

WAIl

wa:j

vjui

SAm

wa:nt

dju:

SAn

wa:d

fju:

tAtJ

wa:k

nju:

JAQ

wa:ld

nju: '

blAd

wa:s

sju:t

dAZ

wa:st

12.

13.

14.

Vowel.

Diphthong

Mixed.

(or Double-vowe).

{or Double-vowel).

Semi-close.

Front.

Back.

Lax.

[e] and [i] in rapid

[o] and [u] in rapid

Short.

succession with-

succession without

out interruption.

interruption.

Notes.

keim

kould

feis

gou

leit

houm

W9Z

meik

houp

neim

nou

k9n

pleit

ould

m9st

teik

sould

59m

peid

spouk

well

stoun

dei

bout

mei

koul

pei^

soup

fr9m

plei

nou

sei?

lou

stei]

broutj

dnd

vein]

mouv

b9t

eit

soul

S9m

greil

sou

Son

breik

tou

a9t

greit

5ou

16.

17.

Diphthong

(or Double-vowel) .

(or Double-vowel).

{or Double-vowel),

Front.

Front to Back.

Back to Front.

[a] and [i] in

[a] and [u] in

[oj and [i] in

rapid succession

without interrup-

tion.

Notes.

faind

klaud

boil

faiv

kaunt

tjois

kraun

koin

laik

daut

d33in

main

faund

bin

nais

haus

oil

kwait

laud

roil

taim

maus

soil

wait

mauG

spoil

rait

aut

spoilt

hai

raund

toi

lait

saund

vois

nait

staut

boij

rait

braun

d5oi

bai

kauj

noiz

bai

kraud

mai

hau] j

wai

nau

ai!

taun

tai

plau

18.

19.

20.

Diphthong

(or Double-vowel) .

{or Double-vowel) .

Centring.

[i] and [9] in

[e] and [9] in

[0] and [9] in

rapid succession

rapid s^iccession

without interrup-

tion.

Notes.

Notes.
Some English
speakers make no
difference between
sound 20 and sound
7. They would pro-
nounce the words
below as [boi, moi,
no:], etc. See 58.

b09

biad

tje9

mo9

klia

f£9

no9

di9

h£9

fi9

pe9

p09

hi9

StS9Z

J03

1119

b£9

S09

ti9

pS9

St09

bi9

SW£9

t09

tji9

t69

b09

di9

we9

kwi9

kS9

ro9

hi9

j£9

d09

pi9

Skw£9

fl09

wi9d

5e9

woo

5e9z

f09

m£9

poo*

pr£9

j09*

5e9

dro9

WS9

J09*

The three words marked
[pU9], [JU9] and [Ju9].

are frequently pronounced as

21.

22.

23.

Diphthong

Consonant.

(or Double-vowel).

Plosive.

Centring.

Obstruction

[u] and [9] in

Place I.

Place 1.

rapid succession

(Lip-up.)

without interrup-

Unvoiced.

Voiced.

tion.

Notes.

pU9

peid

b^k

mu9

p£9

ba:id

tU9

pait

baeig

JU9

pei

bii

tru9

pus

b£9

kjU9

pleit

bi:n

PJU9

plei

bi9

fjU9

pliiz

best

pul

big

PJU9

bl^k

PuJ

buk

put

buit

kAp

boit

drop

boks

help

b9:n

houp

buj

laemp

bAt

soup

bai

suip

kffiib

rAb

24.

25.

26.

Consonant.

Plosive.

Plosive. \

Plosive.

Obstruction

Place 4.

Place 6.

(Ridge-blade.)

(Soft Palate-back.)

Unvoiced.

Voiced.

Unvoiced.

Notes.

teik

dei

koil

ti:

di9

kaid

ten

diip

klim

taim

did

kould

tu:

dui

kAm

tuk

dAZ

kAp

tAtJ

dog

ki:p

taun

dAn

ki:

tain

drai

kwik

tu:

dASt

kwait

best

kaid

aisk

bout

end

bak

buit

faind

bljEk

bAt

h9:d

buk

eit

meid

nok

fffit '

ould

paik

mi:t

peid

stikj

put

red

spiik

soit

send

WDlk

wot

W9:d

W9:k

27.

28.

29.

Consonant.

Plosive.

Nasal.

Ohstruciion

Obstruction

Place 6.

Place I.

Place 4.

(Soft Palate-hack.)

{Lip-up.)

(Ridge-blade.)

Voiced.

Notes.

gaes

maein

nok

get

meik

nouj

gail

mei

neim

giv

mi:n^

nekst

glaeid

milt

nais

glais

men

nait

glAv

milk

nain

gou

main

nou

gud

mis

nAn

got

mum

nau

grais

mai

bim

grim

aim

bom

grei

houm

d3um

bseig

laem

maem

big

laemp

miip

dig

neim

men

dog

ruim

send}

fog

seim

skin

raeg

sAm-

sum '

veig

woim

stoun

30. 1

31.

32.

Consonant.

Nasal.

Fricative.

Obstruction

Double obstruc-

Obstruction

Place 6.

tion Places I & 6.

Place 2.

{Soft Palate-back.)

{Lip-up and Soft

{Teeth-lip.)

Voiced.

Palate-back.)
Voiced.

Unvoiced.

Notes.

brig

weit

feis

haeg

wo:k

f£9

kir)

wo:

foil

br)

woim

foilt

Iaqz

wel

fiild

ror)

west

fil

sir)

wet

faind

sog

wot

f9:st

spnr)

wen

faiv

striri

W£9

fuid

eig"^

witj

fut

wii)

wai

folk

JAT)

wil

f aund

drirjk

wain

foil

drAgk

wud

kof

igk

wul

ha:f

pigk

wo:d

if,l

eaegk

W9:k

laif

eir)k

W9lld

left

trAgk

WOIS

o:f

33.

34.

35.

Consonant.

Fricative.

Obstruction

Place 2.

Place 3.

(Teeth-lip.)

(Teeth-blade.)

Voiced.

Unvoiced.

Voiced.

Notes.

veig

eik

5aet

vein

eiif

ae9

vaist

ein

9em

vein

Gigk

59m

V9:b

6rou

aen

vais

baiG

a£9

vju:

9:6

5i:z

vois

eite

5ei

vout

fife

5£9

vaul

foie

5is

faiv

heie

5ouz

giv

mAn9

5ou

glAV

mau6

5as

hsev

nain9

beia

li:v

noie

bri:5

liv

sikse

leia

lAV

sau6

loua

Jeiv

tene

su:a

twelv

tuie

wia

weiv

triiiO

36.

37.

38.

Consonant.

Fricative.

Obstruction

Obstruction Place 5

Obstruction Places

Place 4. (Ridge-

(Hard Palate-front)

[Vocal chords.)

blade.) Voiced.

Voiced.

Unvoiced.

Notes.

In accordance with

the system of sim-

pUfied notation, the

symbol for this

sound is given as

[r]. In a more pre-

cise notation the

symbol [j] is used in

order to distinguish

it from the front-

trilled (ItaUan) [r].

r£9

jot

ha:f

r?et

jaid

hs9

red

jo:

hsem

lit J

jes

hsend

rait

jet

ha:d

rouz

joik

ha:m

roi]

ju:

haet

brir)

JAQ

hfpv

braun

hei

grim

jo:

hai

graund

ja:z

hil

kri:m

fju:

hould

fri:

nju:

hau

frenf

sju:t

hu:

frend

kju:b

hu:z

pres

hju:d3

hi:

striit

tju:b'

hi:l

0ri:

dju:k^

hi9

tru:

fju:z]

hi:t

trai

tju:n

hi9

39.

40.

41.

Consonant.

Sibilant Fricative.

Obstruction

Place 4.

{Ridge-blade.)

Unvoiced.

Voiced.

Unvoiced.

Notes.

Notps.

siis

ziil

Jeik

sel

zest

Jeip

seim

zigk

JS9

sei

zoun

Jaip

si:

zui

Ji^P

sel

tjiiz

Ji^t

send

dAZ

Jel

said

gouz

Jain

sins

h9:z

Jip

sou

hiz

Ju:

feis

noiiz

Jop

frams

ln:z

J3:t

gra:s

noiz

fou

hois

nouz

jAt

leis

au9z

k^J

lu:s

sez

dij

nais

saiz

fij

rais

St£9Z

puj

siks

J9IZ

wij

W9:s

joiz

woj

42.

43.

44.

}

Consonant.

Sibilant Fricative.

Lateral Fricative.

Obstruction

Obstruction Place 4f

Place 4.

(Ridge-blade.)

(ivith back of tongue

Voiced.

in the u-position.
Voiced.

Notes.

Notes.
In a less precise no-
tation the symbol
[i] may be replaced
by that of sound 43.

[3] is to be found in a

leis

Oil

few dissyllabic and

laist

bei

polysyllabic words,

leit

bii

among which the
most important are :

koii

li:f

koui

'ple39

bin

fiii

'tre39

liiv

fiiid

'me39

left

fui

'1639

leg

gouM

'se39

lend

help

9'kei3n

let

hii

Vi3n

lid

liouid

di'si3n

laif

ould

i'lju:3n

lift

peii

'fju:3n

laik

pui

inVei3n

liv

mil

9'lju:3n

smoit

Ink

smei

lllIZ

tei

lou

wet

45.

46.

Double Consonant.

Affricate.

Obstruction

Place 4.

{Ridge-blade.)

Unvoiced.

Double Consonant.

Affricate.

Obstruction

Place 4.

{Ridge-blade.)

Voiced.

Notes.

tjains
tjaim

tli:p

tjiiz

tJek

ties

tjaild

tjois

tJuiz

tJop
ksetJ
tjaitj

^^^ r

maitj
iritetJ
mAtJ
riitJ

tiitl

tAtJ

d3em

d39:m

d3in

d3aem

d3u:

d3oin

d3ouk

d33i

d3Ag

d3u:s

d3Amp

d3u:n

d3Ast

eid3

keid3

d3Ad3

laid3

peid3

siid3

wed3

SERIES B.

Consisting of Six Useful Sets of Words Contain-
ing (Final or Initial) Weak Syllables.

The sign ['] appearing in all the words of this series
indicates that the syllable which follows takes the stress.
For the purposes of these exercises stress must be taken
to mean not only a stronger emission of air but also a
high musical pitch.

47.

48.

49.

Final 9
{See 12).

Final i
{See 2).

Syllabic n
{See 28).

Notes.

In a less precise

notation the small

stroke under the [n]

may be omitted.

'aiito

'ains9

'bet9

di'semb9

'faia9

'nev9

'peip9

ri'memb9

'wAnd9

'^kt9

'det9
'd3kt9

'k0l9

;£?:

'on9
'piktj9
'k9en9d9
'ekstr9

'S0uf9

'iizi

'evribodi

'fifti

'fAni

'd39im9ni

'hobdi

'it9n

'd39enju9ri

'meni

'mAndi

'mAni

'nesisri

'peni

'plenti

'priti

'kwikli

'redi

'sori

'twenti

'jest9di

'dAzn

'i:tn'

'i:vn

'giv'n

'Difn'

'oupn

'sevn

'sAdn

'teikn

'beikn

di'vi3'n

'lesn '

'mijn

'noujn

9'kei3n

'paidn

ri'lid3'n

'steijn

'S9:tn'

'k9:tn

50.

61.

62.

Syllabic 1
(See 44)."

Inilial 9
(See 12).

Inilial i
(See 2).

Notes.
In a less precise no-
tation the small
stroke under the. [1]
may be omitted.

Notes.

'^pl

'botl
'kaisl
'S9:kl
'litl '
'midl

'piipi

'pDS9bl

'teibl
'ved39t9bl
'a^niml
'fainl '
'speJ!

'k9:nl
'paisl
'eiprl
'pensl

9'baut

9'bAV

9'brD:d
9k'sept
9'dres
9d'vais

9'f£9

9'gein
9'iaik
9'loun
9'nierik9

9'nA59

9'wei

9'blaid3

9'kei3n

9'kbk*

9'pinj9n

p9'mit

S9k'si:d

t9'dei

i'levn

i'nAf"

ig'zaimpl

ik'sept

iks'kjuiz

iks'pekt

iks'plein

i'maed3n

i'mens

im'poitnt

im'D0S9bl

in'diid

i'regjub

i'taelJ9n

bi'lou

bi'twiin

di'said

ri'plai

ri'kwai9

si'lekt

SERIES C.

Consisting of 28 Groups of Pairs of Words likely

TO BE Confused by Foreign Students on

Account of their Similarity.

53.

55.

57.

Pairs of words

, Pairs of words

differing only by

the substitution of

ii for i.

3d for e.

0 for a:.

iit - it

bffiid - bed

boks - baiks

fill - fil

baeig - beg

klok - klaik

hilt - hit

gaes - ges

kost - kaist

U:d - lid

haed - hed

hot - halt

liist - hst

maem - men

bk - la:k

liiv - liv

saend - send

lost - laist

mill - mil

taen - ten

kod - kaid

riitj - ritj

sseid - sed

kot - kait

Ji'P - Jip

b^t - bet

dok - dark

sliip - slip

maes ~ mes

pot - pait

64.

56.

58.

Pairs of words

differing only by

the substitution of

i for e.

a: for ae.

01 for 39.

big - beg

kamt - kaent

no: - no9

did - ded

aim - aem

01 - 09

fil - fel

kaid - kaed

po: - poo

it - et

kait - kaet

so: - S09

Uft - left

hard - haed

ro: - ro9

mis - mes

paik - paek

flo: - fbo

sins - sens

pait - paet

sit - set

amt - aent

Some English people

siks - seks

halt - haet

make no difference

til - tel

maitj - maetj

between such pairs.

69.

61.

63.

Pairs of words

differing only by

the substitution of

:)ifor ai.

A for a:.

o: for A.

o:t - a:t

kAp - ka:p

bo:n - bAn

to:t - tait

kAt - kait

k9:t - kAt

koid - kaid

mAst - maist

t9:f - tAf

ko:t - kait

kATii - ka:m

toik - tAk

foi - fa:

sAm - sa:m

t9:n - tAti

poik - pa:k

dAk - da:k

b3:d - bAd

port - pait

hAt - ha:t

go:l - gAl

sto: - sta:

tjAm - tja:m

J9:t - jAt

to: - ta:

kAf - ka:f

S9:tJ - SAtJ"

fo:st - fa:st

grAnt - gra:nt

f9:n - fAn

60.

62.

64.

Pairs of words

differing only by

the substitution of

o: for 0.

A for ae.

ei for e.

ko:d - kod

bAd - b3e:d

eid3 - ed3

ko:k - kok

bAg - bce:g

deit - det

fo:ks - foks

bAijk - baegk

eit - et

po:t - pot

bAt - baet

geit - get

sko:tJ ^ skotj

kAp - kaep

ieit - iet

Jo:t ^ - Jot

kAt - kaet

pein" - pen

spo:t - spot

hAt - hcet

sell 1*- sel

sto:k - stok

lAmp - laemp

teil '- tel

no:t - not

mAtJ - maetj

teist - test

wo:t - wot

rAn - rsen

weit 3 - wet

65.

67.

69.

Pairs of words

Pairs of ivords

Pairs of words

differing only by

the substittition of

the substitution of

ei for ai.

ou for 0.

ou for au.

fei] - fail

klouk - klok

bou - bau

heit - hait

koust - kost

houl - haul

leik - laik

koud - kod

loud - laud

lei - lai

kouk - kok

nou - nau

mei - mai

houp - hop

rou - rau

peint - paint

Joun - Jon

sou - sau

reid - raid

souk - sok

toun - taun

teil - tail

wount - wont

koutj - kautj

weit - wait

roud - rod

gout - gaut

wei - wai

rout - rot

rouz ~ rauz

66.

68.

70.

Pairs of words

differing only by

the substitution of

ou for 01.

ou for u:.

p for b.

bout - boit

tjouz - tj'u:z

p£9 - bso

bould - bo;ld

group - 9ru:p

pei - bei

boun - bom

houm - hu:m

pul - bul

klouz - kb:z

houz - hu:z

puj* - buj

koul - koil

poul - pu:l

psek - baek

kould - koild

roul - ru:l

pio - bio

kouk - koik

roum - ru:m

pest - best

nou - no:

rout - ru:t

pig - big

rou - ro:

bout - bu:t

kAp - kAb

sou - so:

koul - ku:l

kaep - ka;:b

71.

73.

76.

Pairs of words

differing only by

the substitution of

t for d.

t for V.

mord5-

tu: - du:

fill - viil

tjin - d5in

tAtJ - dAtJ

faist - V9:st

tju: - d3u:

taun - daun

faiil - vaul

tjouk - d30uk

tia - dia

faist - vaist

tjest - d3est

trai - drai

fjui - vju:

tji9 - d3i3

bAt - bAd

feil - veil

ritj - rid3

eit - eid

fain - vain

bsetj - b8ed3

so:t - so:d

li:f - liiv

la:tj - la:d3

meit - meid

seif - seiv

sent - send

pruif - pniiv

72.

74.

76.

Pairs of words

differing only by

the substitution of

kfor g.

s for z.

1 for r.

kaid - gaid

sir)k - zir)k

leis - reis

kould - gould

sirs - siiz

bi - ro:

kAm - gAm

lu:s - luiz

bk - rok

ko:l - g9il

rais - raiz

lou - roil

klais - glais

jiiis - juiz

led - red

baek - baeig

pi:s - pi:z

lait - rait

dok - dog^

his - hiz

bi] - ror)

pek - peg

feis - feiz

flii - fri:

raek - raeg

pleis - pleiz

list - rist

dik - dig

reis - reiz

laim - raim

77.

79.

Pairs of words

differing only by

the suhstihition of

the addition of

g for r)k.

final i.

eir) - eir)k

i:z - 'iizi

sir) - sir)k

SAn - 'sAni

sser) - saegk

pen - 'peni

SAI) - SAIjk

red - 'redi

wir) - wigk

fAn - 'fAni

brir) - brigk

dAst - 'dAsti

mAd - 'mAdi

wind - Vindi

sliip - 'sliipi

greiv - 'greivi

78.

80.

Pairs of words

differing only by

the addition of

final 9.

initial 9.

bet - 'bet9

broid - 9'broid

aekt - 'sckt9

dres - 9'dres

det - '4et9

f£9 - 9'f£9

on - 'ono

gein - 9'gein

big - 'big 9

laik - 9'laik

smoil - 'smoib

wei - 9'wei

red - 'red9

kbk - 9'kbk

beg - 'beg9

pait - 9'pa:t

ju:z - 'JUIZ9

weik - 9'weik

riid - 'ri:d9

sliip - 9'sliip

ORTHOGRAPHIC TEXT OF THE 80
EXERCISES ON ENGLISH WORDS.

SERIES A.

Vowel.

Front.

Close.

Semi-close.

Tense.

Lax.

Long.

Short.

Notes.

big

best

been

did

else

deep

fill

end

free

give

get

green

his

help

keep

left

meet

ill

men

see

street

it -,

send

week

quick

tell

eat

lift

ten

leave

live

twelve

mean

miss

well

'please -

-since

went

pleased

sit

when

read

six

yes -'

speak

stick

ate

tea

stiU

friend

piece

said

key

build

says

6..

Voi£^el.

Vowel.

Front.

Back.

Semi-open.

Open.

Semi-open.

Lax.

Short or Long.

Long.

Short.

Notes.

back

ask

box

bad

can't

clock

bag

fast

cost

bank

grass

dog

black

half

drop

drank

last

got —

fact

arm

hot

fat

card

knock

flag

cart

lock

flat

dark

lost

gas

far

lot

glad

hard

not

had

park

has

part

pond

have

star

soft

man

start

spot

sand

aren't

stop

stand

laugh

want

tram

clerk '

wash

plaid

heart

what

Vowel.

Back.

Semi-open.

Close.

Rounded.

Tense. Lonf:.

Lax. Short.

Tense. Long.

Notes.

all

book

boot

call

cook

moon

fall

foot

room

small

good

school

walk

hook

soon

wall

look

spoon

sauce

shook .

too

law

took

June

saw

wood

rule

warm

wool

blue

fork

full

true

horse

pull

fruit

sort

push

board

put

lose

bought

could

move

ough.t

should

two

taught

would

who

yours

wolf

soup

off

bush

shoe

towards

bull

through

9a.

10.

11.

]u:

(Identical with 9,

but preceded by

the consonant

[j]; see No. 37.)

Vowel.

Mixed.

Open.

Lax.

Short.

Vowel.

Mixed.

Semi-close.

Tense.

Long.

Notes.

cube
duke
dupe
fuse
huge
mule
tube]
tune-
use
use
cue
due
you
youth
view
dew
few
knew
new
suit

but

cup

cut

must

shut

sun

come

done

love

none

once

one

some

son

touch

young

blood

does

bum

hurt

purse

turn

bird

first

girl

shirt

heard

learn

year

hers

verb

were

weren't

word

work

world

worse

worst

12.

13.

14.

Vowel.

Diphthong

Mixed.

(or Double-vowel).

Semi-close.

Front.

Back.

Lax.

[e] and [i] in rapid

[o] and [u] in rapid

Short.

succession with-

succession without

out interruption.

interruption.

Notes.

came

cold

face

go .

the

late

home.

was

make

hope.

were

name

can

plate

old

must

take

sold

them

paid

spoke

wait

stone

day

boat

may

coal

for

pay

soap

from

play

know

say

low

stay

brooch

and

vein

mauve

but

eight

soul

some

grey

sew

than

break

toe

that

great

though

15.

16. ^

17.

Diphthong

(or Double-vowel).

{or Double-vowel) .

{or Double-vowel).

Front.

Front to Back.

Back to Front.

[a] and [i] in

[a] and [u] in

[o] and [i] in

rapid succession

without interrup-

ivithout interrup-

tion.

Notes.

find

cloud

boil

five

count

choice

crown

coin

doubt

join

mine

found

loin

nice

house

oil

quite

loud

royal

time

mouse

soil

white

mouth

spoil

write

out

spoilt

high

round

toy

light

sound

voice

night

stout

boy

right

brown

joy

buy

cow

noise

crowd

rny

how

why

now

eve

town

tie

plough

18.

19.

20.

£9

Diphthong

[or Double-vowel).

{or Double-vowel).

Centring.

[i] and [9] in

[s] and [9] in

[0] and [9] in

rapid succession

without interrup-

tion.

Nules.

Nulcs.

Notes.

ear

air

bore

beard -—

chair

clear

fair

nor

dear

hair

fear

pair

pore

hear

stairs

shoje

near

bear • —

sore-. —

tear

pear

store

beer

swear

tore

cheer

tear

boar

deer

wear

oar

queer

care

roar

here

door

pier

square

floor

weird

their

war

theirs

four

mayor

pour

prayer

your

jthere

drawer

where

sure

21.

22.

23.

Diphthong

Consonant.

{or Double-vowel) .

Plosive.

Centring.

Obstruction

[u] and [9] in

Place I.

rapid succession

{Lip-up.)

without interrup-

Unvoiced.

Voiced.

tion.

Notes.

poor

paid

back

moor

pair

bad

tour

part

bag

sure

pay

truer

piece

bear

cure

plate

been

pure

play

beer

fewer

please

best

pull

big

pure

black

push

book

put

boot

cup

bought

drop

box

help

burn

hope

bush

lamp

but

soap

buy

soup

cab

rub

24.

25.

26.

Consonant.

Plosive.

Obstruction

Place 4.

Place 6.

(Ridge-blade.)

[Ridge-blade.)

{Soft Palate-back.)

Unvoiced.

Voiced.

Unvoiced.

Notes.

take

day

call

tea

dear

card

ten

deep

clean

time

did

cold

too

come

took

do''.s

cup

touch

dog

keep

town

done

key

turn

dry

quick

two

dust

quite

best

card

ask

boat

end

back

boot

find

black

but

heard

book

eight

made

knock

fat

old

park

meet

paid

stick

put

red

speak

sort

send

walk

what

word

work

27.

28.

29.

Consonant.

Plosive.

Nasal.

Obstruction

Place 6.

Place I.

Place 4.

(Soft Palate-back.)

(Lip-lip.)

(Ridge-blade)

Voiced.

Notes.

gas

man

knock

get

make

know

girl

may

name

give

mean

giad

meet

nice

glass

men

night

glove

milk

nine

mine

good

miss

none

got

moon

now

grass

been

green

arm

burn

grey

home

June

bag

lamb

man

big

lamp

mean

dig

name

men

dog

room

send

fog

same

skin

rag

some

soon

vagne

warm

stone

30.

31.

32.

Consonant.

Nasal.

Fricative.

Obstruction

Double obstruc-

Obstruction

Place 6.

tion Places I & 6.

Place 2.

{Soft Palate-back.)

(Lip-lip and Soft

(Teeth-lip.)

Voiced.

Palate-back.)

Unvoiced.

Voiced.

Notes.

bring

wait

face

hang

walk

fair

king

war

fall

long

warm

fault

lungs

well

field

wrong

west

fill

sing

wet

find

song

what

first

spring

when

five

string

where

food

thing

which

foot

wing

why

fork

young

will

found

drink

wine

fall

drunk

wood

cough

ink

wool

half

pink

word'

thank

work!

laugh

think

world

left

trunk

worse

off

v..

33.

34.

35.

Consonant.

Fricative.

Obstruction

Place 2.

Place 3.

(Teeth-lip.)

(Teeth-blade.)

Voiced^

Unvoiced.

Voiced.

Notes.

vague

thick ,

that

vain

thief

their

vast

thin

them

vein

think

them

verb

throw

then

verse

bath

there--

view

earth

these

voice

eighth .

they

vote

fifth

thev're —

vowel

fourth

this"

five

health

those

give

month

though

glove

mouth

thus

have

ninth

bathe

leave

north

breathe

live

sixth

lathe

love *«=-

-south ^-

loathe

shave

tenth

soothe

twelve

tooth

with

wave

truth

36.

37.

38.

Consonant.

Fricative.

Ohstmction

Obstruction Place 5

Obstruction Place S

Place 4. {Ridge-

{Hard Palate-front)

{Vocal chords.)

hlade.) Voiced.

Voiced.

Unvoiced.

Notes.

rare

yacht

half

rat

yard

hair

red

year

ham

rich

yes

hand

right

yet

hard

rose

York

harm

wrong

you

hat

bring

young

have

brown

your

hay

green

you're

high

ground

yours

hill

cream

few

hold

free

knew

how

French

suit

who

friend

cube

whose

press

huge

street

tube

heal

three

duke

hear

true

fuse

heat

try

tune

here ^

39.

40.

41.

Consonant.

Sibilant Fricative.

Obstruction

Place 4.

{Ridge-blade.)

(Ridge-blade.)

Unvoiced.

Voiced.

Unvoiced.

Notes.

cease

zeal

shake

cell

zest

shape

same

zinc

say

zone

sharp

see

Zoo

sheep

sell

cheese

sheet

send

does

shell

side

goes

shine

since

hers

ship

his

shoe

face

knows

shop

France

lose

short

grass

noise

show

horse

nose

shut

lace

ours

cash

loose

says

dish

nice

size

fish

rice

stairs

push

six

years

wish

worse

yours

wash

42.

43.

44.

Consonant.

Sibilant Fricative.

Lateral Fricative.

Obstruction

Place 4.

(Ridge-blade.)

Voiced.

Obstruction

Place 4.

(Ridge-blade.)

Voiced.

Obstruction Places

(Ridge-blade.)

(with back of tongue

in the w-position.)

Voiced.

Notes.

Notes. \

Notes.

lace

all

last

beU

late

biU

law

call

leaf

coal

learn

feel

leave

field

left

fuU

pleasure
treasure

leg
lend

gold
help

measure

let

hill

leisure

lid

hold

azure

life

old

occasion

lift

pale

vision

pull

decision

live

rule

illusion

lock

small

fusion \
invasion \

look \
lose ^\

smell
tell

allusion ^

low

well

-f

45.

46.

Double Consonant.

Affricate.

Obstruction

Place 4.

(Ridge-blade.)

Unvoiced.

Double Consonant.

Affricate.

Obstruction

Place 4.

(Ridge-blade.)

Voiced.

Notes.

chance

charm

cheap

cheese

cheque

chess

child

choice

choose

chop

catch

church

each

March

match

much

reach

rich

teach

touch

gem

germ

gin

jam

Jew

join

joke

joy

juice

jump

June

just

age

cage

judge

large

page

siege

wedge

SERIES B.

Consisting of Six Useful Sets of Words Contain-
ing (Final or Initial) Weak Syllables.

47.

48.

49.

Final 9

Final i

Syllabic n

{See 12).

(See 2).

(See 28).'

Notes.

after

easy

dozen

answer

everybody

eaten

better

fifty

even

December

funny

given

father

Germany

often

never

hoHday

open

paper

Italy

seven

remember

January

sudden

wonder

many

taken

actor

Monday

bacon

debtor

money

division

doctor

necessary

lesson

collar

penny

mission

sugar

plenty

notion

colour

pretty

occasion

honour

quickly

pardon

picture

ready

religion

Canada

sorry

station]

extra

twenty

certain

sofa

yesterday

curtain

50. [

51.

52.

Syllabic \

Initial 9

Initial i

(See 43).

(See 12).

(See 2).

Notes.

apple

about

elevfen

bottle

above

enough

castle

abroad

example

circle

except

little

address

excuse

middle

advice

expect

people

affair

explain

possible

again

imagine

single

alike

immense

table

alone

important

vegetable

America

impossible

animal

another

indeed

final

away

irregular

special

oblige

Italian

usual

occasion

below

colonel

o'clock

between

parcel

opinion

decide

April

permit

pencil

succeed

require

awful

to-day

select

SERIES C.

Consisting of 28 Groups of Pairs of Words likely

TO BE Confused by Foreign Students on

Account of their Similarity.

53.

55.

57.

Pairs of words

differing only by

the substitution of

i: for i.

se for e.

0 for a:.

eat - it

bad - bed

box - barks

feel - fill

bag - beg

clock - clerk

heat - hit

gas - guess

cost - cast

lead - Hd

had - head

hot - heart

least - Hst

man - men

lock - lark

leave - live

sand - send

lost - last

meal - mill

tan - ten

cod - card

reach - rich

sad - said

cot - cart

sheep - ship

bat - bet

dock - dark

sleep - slip

mass - mess

pot - part

54.

56.

58.

Pairs of words

differing only by

the substitution of

i for e.

a: for ae.

0: for 09.

big - beg

can't - cant

gnaw - nor

did - dead

arm - am

awe - or

fill - fell

card - cad

paw - pour

it - ate

cart - cat

saw - sore

lift - left

hard - had

raw - roar

miss - mess

park - pack

flaw - floor

since - sense

part - pat

sit - set

aunt - ant

six - sex

heart - hat

till - tell

march - match

59.

61.

63.

Pairs of words

differing only by

the substitution of

01 for a:.

A for a:.

9: for A.

ought - art

cup - carp

bum - bun

taught - tart

cut - cart

curt - cut

cord - card

must - mast

turf - tough

caught - cart

come - calm

Turk - tuck

four - far

some - psalm

turn - ton

pork - park

duck - dark

bird - bud

port - part

hut - heart

girl - gull

store - star

chum - charm

shirt - shut

tore - tar

cuff - calf

search - such

forced - fast

grunt - grant

fern - fun

60.

62.

64.

Pairs of words

differing only by

the substitution of

01 for 0.

A for ae.

ei for e.

cord - cod

bud - bad

age - edge

cork - cock

bug - bag

date - debt

forks - fox

bunk - bank

eight - ate

port - pot

but - bat

gate - get

scorch - Scotch

cup - cap

late - let

short - shot

cut - cat

pain - pen

sport - spot

hut - hat

sail - seU

stork - stock

lump - lamp

tail - tell

nought- not

much - match

taste - test

wart - what-

run - ran

wait - wet

65.

67.

69.

Pairs of words

differing only by

the substitution of

ei for ai.

ou for 0.

ou for au.

fail - file

cloak - clock

bow - bow

hate - height

coast - cost

hole - howl

lake - like

code - cod

load - loud

lay - lie

coke - cock

know - now

may - my

hope - hop

row - row

paint - pint

shown - shone

sew - sow

raid - ride

soak - sock

tone - town

tail - tile

won't - want

coach - couch

wait - white

road - rod

goat - gout

way - why

wrote - rot

rose - rouse

66.

68.

70.

Pairs of words

differing only by

the substitution of

ou for o:.

ou for ui.

p for b.

boat - bought

chose - choose

pair - bear

bold - bald

grope - group

pay - bay

bone - born

home - whom

pull - bull

close - clause

hose - whose

push - bush

coal - call

pole - pool

pack - back

cold - called

roll - rule

pier] - beer

coke - cork

Rome - room

pest - best

know - gnaw

wrote - root

pig - big

row - raw

boat - boot

cup - cub

sew - saw

coal - cool

cap - cab

71.

73.

75.

Pairs of words

differing only by
the substitution of

t for d.

f for V.

tJ/ord3.

two - do

feel - veal

chin - gin

touch - Dutch

first - versed

chew - Jew

town - down

foul - vowel

choke - joke

tear - dear

fast - vast

chest - jest

try - dry
but - bud

few - view
fail - veil

cheer - jeer
rich - ridge

eight - aid
sort - sword

fine - vine
leaf - leave

batch - badge
larch - large

mate - made

safe - save

sent - send

proof - prove

72.

74.

76.

Pairs of words

differing only by
the substitution of

k for g.'

s for z.

1 for r.

card - guard

sink - zinc

lace - race

cold - gold

cease - seize

law - raw

come - gum

loose - lose

lock - rock

curl - girl

rice - rise

low - row

class - glass

use - use

lead - read

back - bag
dock - dog
peck - peg
rack - rag
Dick - dig

piece - peas
hiss - his
face - phase
place - plays
race - raise

light - right
long - wrong
flea - free
list - wrist
lime - rhyme

11.

79.

Pairs of words

differing only by
the substitution of

differing only by
the addition of

T} for ijk.

final i.

thin - think

ease - easy

sing^ - sink

sun - sunny

sang - sank
sung - sunk
wing - wink
bring - brink

pen - penny
red - ready
fun - funny
dust - dusty
mud - muddy
wind - windy
sleep - sleepy

grave - gravy

78.

80.

Pairs of words

differing onty by
the addition of

differing only by
the addition of

final 9.

initial a.

bet - better

broad - abroad

act - actor

dress - address

debt - debtor

fair - affair

on - honour
big - bigger
small - smaller
red - redder

gain - again
like - alike
way - away
clock - o'clock

beg - beggar
use - user

part - apart
wake - awake

read - reader

sleep - asleep

SERIES D.

Transcription Exercises.

Exercises marked A to be transcribed from phonetic
into orthographic script. Those marked B to be treated
in the inverse sense.

(i.) Sounds I to 4.

A. Hv, H:v, wel, giv, baeid, sed, wi:k, flaet, hft, trend,
staend, sir.

B. Mean, six, black, keep, tell, please, else, did,
plaid, fact, piece, twelve.

(2.) Sounds 5 to 8.

A. daik, dog, o:t, fut, faist, not, hois, put, wont, laif,
SOI, kud.

B. Hot, book, hard, small, on, full, towards, heart,
knock, bought, last, good.

(3.) Sounds 9 to 12.

A. id, mu:v, dAn, boid, Jui, waid, 9v, kAt, juiz,
t9m, Iav, 59m.

B. Work, an, school, come, to, tube, year, does,
knew, burn, up, was.

(4.) Recapitulation of Sounds i to 12.

A. i:t, woim, sum, ten, wul, sins, waus, baek, grais,
pgis, woj", 9nd.

B. For, few, wall, lock, build, first, part, sun, put,
bad, speak, ate.

TRANSCRIPTION EXERCISES 87

(5.) Sounds 13 to 15.

A. spouk, meik, taim, houm, nait, sei, bai, lou, teik,
tou, greit, wait.

B. Came, quite, no, name, my, know, live, eiglit, I,
hope, break, soap.

(6.) Sounds 16 to 18.

A. boi, hia, laud, spoil, braun, dia, tjois, hau, d5ji,
nau, bia, nia.

B. Queer, oil, count, ear, coin, now, deer, mouse,
dear, voice> spoilt, doubt.

(7.) Sounds 19 to 21.

A. mo9, pu9, tjs9, do9, k£9, pju9, to9, Js9, W09, mso,

kjU9, £9.

B. store, cure, wear, four, there, bear, floor, pure,
sore, tour, drawer, where.

(8.) Recapitulation of Sounds i to 21.

A. wait, did, kju9, men, stoun, bsek, p£9, 9s, taun,
tui, fa:, do9, W9:st, boil, Juk, i9, leit, jAt, wo:k, drop, mi:t.

B. Heart, shoe, green, oil, wolf, sore, live, fear,
poor, friend, write, flat, hurt, stop, sold, board, touch,
was, paid, round, swear.

(9.) Sounds 22 to .25.

A. dei, red, pleit, drai, help, baeid, dAst, Ap, phiz,
faet, buj, tAtJ.

B. What, ten, rub, play, been, cab, lamp, buy,
pair, bag, boat, boot.

(10.) Sounds 26 to 29.

A. ko:l, park, gud, W9:k, dog, milk, g9:l, seim, nok,
mis, skin, nais.

B. Been, night, know, mean, arm, warm, go, fog,
get, key, black, cup.

88 ENGLISH PHONETICS

(ii.) Sounds 30 to 33.

A. Gig, wain, feis, 9iijk, west, tiAgk, laif, wai, fu:d,
faiv, vein, vout.

B. Glove, field, song, have, leave, wet, ink, fall,
bring, west, found, warm.

(12.) Sounds 34 to 37.

A. 6in, 6s9, rouz, o:G, jet, siksO, frend, Dis, jes, 5en,
trai, jaid.

B. York, three, there, yacht, eighth, these, you,
right, bathe, rich, bath, north.

(13.) Sounds 38 to 41.

A. half, si:, zoun, haev, Jip, gouz, huiz, frains, Jeik,
luis, saiz, wij.

B. Wash, sharp, lose, loose, how, noise, shoe, who,
yours, side, he, cheese.

(14.) Sounds 43 to 46.

A. left, peil, keid3, liv, mAtJ, bel, tjams, laif, help,
d3u:s, tjaitj, dsAds.

B. Large, chop, gold, jam, cheap, leg, smell, jug,
March, feel, like, learn.

(15.) Recapitulation of Sounds 22 to 46.

A. d3Ast, 5ou, laem, klim, kriim, grei, ri:tj, lam,
nekst, JAi), smoil, haiz, noiG, dAz, vaist, hi:t, puj, hois,
fut, rAb, jaid, wen, soit, pait.

B. Paid, tea, quick, glove, true, cab, shine, none,
card, wool, their, glass, health, cease, warm, wrong,
your, hand, zinc, first, lose, all, much, age.

(16.) 47 to 52.

A. 'priti, a'wei, 'deta, 'meni, 'dAzn, 'ka:s|, 'peipa,
'givn, i'uAf, ta'dei, 'piipl, bi'lou, ai'dia, steijn, 'mAni,
'spejl, di'said, a'loun.

B. Eleven, address, sudden, funny, doctor, select,
circle, expect, table, Italy, o'clock, permit, certain,
sugar, America, taken, ready, answer.

TRANSCRIPTION EXERCISES 89

(17.) General Recapitulation.

A. dAZ, wot, drigk, faet, iks'plein, aut, 'wAnd9, tjaim,
graund, 5ouz, if, bu;t, Jop, noiz, d3Ag, haet, oil, 'midl,
kAp, ri'plai, said, rait, peid, 'oifn, bout, 'hobdi, maitj,
J9:, nekst, 'piktj9, mai, ad'vais, ful, fij, ba:B, hai, 'kainl,
mei, laist, sins, d3Ad3, JAr), liv, vein, dig, 9'blaid3, gould,
haev, ould, 9'pinJ9n, get, 'jest9di, 5is, wen, mD9, ni9, fju:,
kiip, mAuG, Iaqz, bi:n, pju9, he9, lu:z, bi9, glAV, ha:f,
boit, pul, W99, noiz, nou, teik, bai, 9z, J9:t, bUd, huk,
bold, wod, pond, stait, flaeg, ten, tii, li:v.

B. Bird, oil, vague, use, little, plenty, notion, final,
piece, meet, men, some, boot, clear, lamb, went,
knock, abroad, his, bring, joy, hang, square, gas, half,
fact, face, at, keep, whose, heart, sharp, a, knew, tore,
could, yet, want, done, hill, all, ink, blue, blood, soup,
weren't, bill, may, build, quite, laugh, size, pier, crown,
know, wash, world, debtor, walk, those, wool, sorry,
great, coal, foot, high, war, excuse, sew, with, plough,
lose, find, stairs, year, there, Monday, store, horse,
soap, lesson, rub, press, chance, heard, castle, Canada,
eaten, above, imagine.

A BRIEF LIST OF
IMPORTANT PHONETIC BOOKS,

I. BOOKS ON PHONETIC THEORY.

W. RIPPMANN. The Sounds of Spoken English, revised version,
1914. (Dent, London, is. gd. net.) Also in one volume with
Specimens of English, 3s. net.

• — English Sounds. (Dent, London, 191 1, is.) Designed specially
for children. (There is a special edition of this book for use
in Scottish Schools.)

D. JONES. An Outline of English Phonetics. (Teubner, Leipzig.)

— The Pronunciation of English. (Cambridge University Press,
2nd edition, 1914, 2S. 6d.) Contains phonetic texts.

H. E. PALMER. A First Course of English Phonetics. (Heffer,
Cambridge, 1916, 2s. 6d. net.)

L. SOAMES. Introduction to Phonetics, revised edition. (Mac-
millan, London, 1913, 6s.)

2. PHONETIC READERS.

H. E. PALMER. 100 English Substitution Tables. (Hefner, Cam-
bridge, 1916, 2s. net.)

G, NOEL-ARMFIELD. English Humour in Phonetic Transcript.
(Heffer, Cambridge, 1914, lod.) With orthographic transcript,
IS. 3d.)

P. PASSY. Les Elements d 'Anglais Parl6. (Firmin-Didot, Paris,
3rd edition, lod.)

PHONETIC PUBLICATIONS

W. HEFFER & SONS LTD.

Heffers Phonetic Series.

General Phonetics for Missionaries and Students of
Languages.

G. NOEL-ARMFIELD, Assistant in Phonetics, University College,
London, Cr 8vo. 3s. net.

"The book can be highly recommended as a sound contribution to Phonetics."— Mo^cf/i
Language Teaching.

" Ce sera un guide precieux pour les premiers pas a faire dans un vaste champ linguisti:iue
dont I'esploration methodique ne fait que commencer. Le Livre est ecrit d'un bout a I'autre
dans un style tres simple, d'un point de vue pratique et inspire par I'experience." — Revue de
I' Enseignement des Langnes Vivantes.

[Just published .^

A First Course of English Phonetics.

Including an explanation of the scope of the science of phonetics, the
theory of sounds, a catalogue of English sounds, and a number of
articulation, pronunciation, and transcription exercises.

H. E, PALMER, author of "Colloquial English." Cr 8vo,, 2s. 6d. net.

Colloquial English. Part I. 100 Substitution Tables.

H. E, PALM'ER, Author of "Manuel d'Anglais parle," Fcap 4to,
Phonetic and orthographic texts in separate books under one cover.
2s. net.

"A most original and exhaustive book for the teaching of English by the means of
Phonetics. The author, by a very ingenious tabular arrangement, has made it possible for the
book to be extended from 100 tables of twelve sentences each into so vast a number of sentences
that the mind is entirely unable to grasp the almost infinite possibilities of the volume.

English Humour in Phonetic Transcript.

G. NOEL-ARMFIELD, Assistant in Phonetics, University College,
London. Cr 8vo. Is. 3d. net; without Orthographic Transcript,
lOd. net

" The success of the series should be assured if the succeeding books are as satisfactory and
as complete as this one." — Scottish Class Teacher.

Short English Poems for Repetition.

C. M. RICE, A.R.C.M., Chaplain of King's College, Cambridge. Cr 8vo.
Is. 3d. net; without Orthographic Transcript, lOd. net.

" For an effective teaching of Phonetics in the lower classes Heffers' Phonetic Series is
admirably fitted." — Educational Reviexv.

Colloquial French. I. Fluency Exercises.

H. E. PALMER and C. MOTTE. Oblong cr. 8vo. Is. net.

These exercises are intended to help English people to increase their fluency
in Colloquial French.

CAMBRIDGE: W. HEFFER & SONS LTD.

Heffers Phonetic Series.

An Elementary Grammar of Colloquial French (on
Phonetic Basis).

By G. BONNARD, Professeur au Gymnase de Lausanne. Demy 8vo.
3s. 6d. net.

"This book is unique of its kind, and it supplies the need which has arisen with the
increase in the number of teachers usinj* the Phonetic method, as it is a grammar suitable for
those learning French on those lines. It is most satisfactory to note that the grammatical
classifications and rules are based exclusively on the spoken language. We find it an excellent
book, well suited for the Central School, the Secondary School, or adult beginners."— T^e
London Teacher.

" La grammaire francaise de M. Bonnard est mieux qu'une simple nouveaute ; c'est une con-
tribution utile a I'etude pratique et scolaire du francais, et en meme temps un document
precieux pftur I'histoire de notre langue et de sa prononciation." — Revue de L' Enseignement
des Langues Vivantes.

COURS FRANCAIS DU LYCEE PERSE.
Premiere Partie.

Series, Verbes, Recitations et Chansons en Transcription Phonetique et
en Orthographe Usuelle. Par L. C. von GLEHN, M.A., et
L. CHOUVILLE, B.-es-L., Professeurs au Lycee Perse de Cam-
bridge, et ROSE WELLS. F'cap 4to, cloth. 2s.

Deuxieme Partie.

Conjugaison des Verbes avec quelques Notions de Syntaxe par L, C. von
GLEHN, M.A., et L. CHOUVILLE, B.-es-L., Professeurs au Lycde
Perse de Cambridge. F'cap 4to, limp cloth. Is. 6d.

PRESS NOTICES OF THE PREMIERE PARTIE.

" Pupils who master this book should be able to express themselves in ample French, and
should have a good knowledge of elementary grammar."— /^oJirfon Teacher.

" In the hands of a capable teacher who has a thorough knowledge of phonetics, and who is
a staunch supporter of the 'Direct Method,' it should be a useful book." — Scottish Class
Teacher.

" The book is remarkable for its simplicity ; without any grammatical apparatus, except a
table of verb endings, it introduces all the practical grammar that young pupils require."—
Educational News.

[Nearly ready.']

Egyptian Colloquial Arabic — A Conversation Grammar

By W. H. T. GAIRDNER, B.A,, Oxon., of the Church Missionary

Society, Cairo, Superintendent of Arabic Studies in the Cairo Study

Centre.

The feature of the method adopted in this book is the use of Phonetics and International

Phonetic symbols. Being based on the system of the International Phonetic Association it will

be useful to students of all nationalities. Every sound has a distinct symbol. The book consists

of a series of graduated conversations, dialogues, stories, etc. constructed in such a way that

Arabic must be the medium of instruction from the first. The language is thoroughly idiomatic,

and represents the colloquial of educated people in Egypt, and especially Cairo. It covers, in

general, the whole ground of the grammar of the language.

Cambridge: W. HEFFER G? SONS LTD.

■ -"j

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